Psych Exam 11/18/22 Flashcards
personality
emotional responses and habitual ways in which an individual responds to the environment
trait theories
building blocks of personality
biological theories of personality
differ due to physiological differences
developmental personality theories
differ due to distinct early childhood experiences
humanist theories
differ in our choices and goals
trait
characteristics and stable pattern of thought, feeling or behavior
Big 5 (OCEAN)
Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
openness to experience
Imaginative vs down to earth
Variety vs routine
Independent vs conforming
conscientiousness
Organized vs disorganized
Careful vs careless
Self -disciplined vs weak-willed
extraversion
Social vs retiring
Fun-loving vs sober
Affectionate vs reserved
agreeableness
Softhearted vs ruthless
Trusting vs suspicious
Helpful vs uncooperative
neuroticism
Worried vs calm
Insecure vs secure
Self-pitying vs self-satisfied
analog
how we use the same dimensions to quickly describe someone’s appearance (ex height, weight, hair color)
temperament
differences in emotional responses that vary across individuals and have a biological basis, highly heritable
inhibited temperament
fear/shyness, activity/emotionality/sociability
stable (trait observations)
when measured in the womb, predict parent reports at 3 months, observations at age 4, and peer and teacher reports at age 8 and beyond
can change, inhibited can and do sometimes become uninhibited mostly because parents work hard at inhibited temperaments (trying to make a shy child confident)
Eysenck (extroverts vs introverts)
differences in extraversion vs introversion due to arousability - also thought to be primary factor in temperament
extroverts
low arousability, so they seek external stimulation (ex. lower heartrate reactivity to stimulation so they seek more
introverts
higher arousabiltiy, so they avoid external stimulation (ex higher responsiveness in heartrate to same stimulation so they seek less)
inherited traits (Gray)
differences due to behavior inhibition system and behavior activation system
BIS and BAS
extroverts - BAS > BIS (more sensitive to rewards than punishment)
introverts - BIS > BAS (more sensitive to punishment than rewards)
Freudian theory of personality
personality will be determined by how a child passes through early psychosexual stages, “fixations” occur when under stress, regress to problematic area
oral (Freudian theory of personality)
gains sensual gratification through the mouth
adults with an oral fixation may be prone to excessive eating/drinking
anal (Freudian theory of personality)
toilet training
adults any be compulsively neat and precise
phallic (Freudian theory of personality)
3-6 years old
Oedipal or Electra complex - fixation on opposite sex parents, gives way to identification with same-sex parent
attachment
bonds btw infant and caregiver will influence individual’s interaction with others throughout the lifespan
Self Letter test
B - secure: comfortable with relationships, easily formed (65% in US)
C - anxious: want relationships, but insecure (10-15%)
A - avoidant: dismissive of relationships (30-25%)
secure
warm responsive parenting
anxious
unreliably responsive parenting - parent warm when available but not always available
avoidant
parent unavailable/unresponsive - infant learns to self-soothe
Ainsworth’s strange situation test
give child interesting toys, mother leaves and then she comes back
3 stages - explore, separate, reunite
secure (Ainsworth’s strange situation test)
explore, upset when mother leaves, can easily and quickly be comforted
anxious (Ainsworth’s strange situation test)
clingy, upset when mother leaves, cannot be comforted easily
avoidant (Ainsworth’s strange situation test)
ignore, don’t act upset when mother leaves (but show increased HR), don’t greet upon return
Ainsworth follow-up study
original Ainsworth study kids studied as young adults in college (all female, brought boyfriends)
No differences in waiting rooms apparent until the stress of “pain” study (attachment patterns emerge primarily when under stress)
Stressor: giant machine with claws and sparks, told the women that it would cause pain but no damage
secure (Ainsworth follow-up study)
sought and received comfort
anxious (Ainsworth follow-up study)
clingy, not comforted
avoidant (Ainsworth follow-up study)
sat further away from partner, did not mention it
social learning theory
personality dispositions are shaped through development, prior experience from lasting habits and expectancies
environmental influences/observational learning (social learning theory)
modeling - children will imitate and internalize the behaviors of adults or peers that they like or that they see rewarded (having an optimistic or grateful mindset)
locus of control
extent to which believe influential forces lie within (internal) vs outside (external) the individual
parenting practices (locus of control)
parenting practices that are responsive to the child and encourage independent exploration encourage an internal locus of control, whereas those that control the child’s environment and schedule the child’s activities can lead to a more external locus of control (helicopter parenting)
self-efficacy (locus of control)
beliefs about the self’s own ability and competence can be domain-specific (ex athletics or academics)
high self-efficacy → greater persistence on challenging tasks
young children who are sheltered from failure/mistakes have lower efficacy in those domains
humanistic theories
don’t emphasize early development, free will + growth
individual plays major role in shaping own personality, we differ in what we strive for
self-actualizing motive (humanistic theory)
process by which people strive to fulfill their individual potential for personal growth through greater self-understanding (top of Maslow’s pyramid)
seeking self-congruity (humanistic theory)
ideal self: who one hopes to be
ought self: who one thinks one should be
actual self: who one is right now
ideal-actual incongruity can lead to depression
ought-actual incongruity can lead to anxiety
situationism
theory that situational norms determine behavior at any specific time point more than personality traits
strong situations
most likely to determine behavior (funerals, job interviews, classrooms) because the social norms of how to behave in that situation are strong
weak situations
fewer norms, so people can behave freely and naturally (parties, parks, hanging out) - personality can often predict behavior in weak situations
situational change
situations change across time, but personality remains relatively stable - personality predicts behavioral patterns across time but for any single instance of behavior the prediction is made by social situation
social psychology
study of how our thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the real, implied or imagined presence of others
social brain theory
keeping track of who is a friend/can be trusted
reading social cues and adapting one’s behavior accordingly
animals who live in social groups are more intelligent than “loners” (social Meerkats are much more intelligent than their relative, the more solitary Slender mongoose)
even within social groups, animals who live in larger groups require larger brains
belonging as a human need
we need each other to survive - negative consequences if belonging needs are unmet
high-quality social connections are often the largest determinant of happiness and overall life satisfaction across cultures
social isolation
the largest predictor of poor physical and mental health
lonely individuals have:
poorer sleep quality, lower immune function (higher rates of infections and slower wound healing)
poorer mental health (higher rates of depression)
higher rates of cardiovascular disease
higher mortality rates from numerous diseases
after rejection
pay attention to and remember more social information
become better at reading emotional facial expressions (true vs false smiles)
become better at understanding emotional vocal tones
become better at perspective-taking (understanding others’ point of view)
become more cooperative at group tasks
normative influence
we want to be liked, Asch’s conformity and line length study
informational influence
we want to be right, whenever the situation is ambiguous we look to others for the right answer
ex. deciding to try a new restaurant - see whether other people are eating there
what to purchase at a store - buy the one that looks “scarcer” as it implies that others buy it
“mask culture” - social norms a better predictor of whether a person would wear a mask than knowledge/infomration
conformity
yielding to real or imagined social pressure
Asch’s line-length study (normative influence: conformity)
1 participant, 5 confederates, when the confederates gave the wrong answer
- 76% conformed on at least 1 trial (dropped if answers weren’t aloud)
normative + informational influence (conformity)
normative = we want to be liked, and will do what it takes to get along
informational = if ambiguous situation, look to others
cohesiveness (conformity)
liking for a group increases conformity = normative
group size (conformity)
increasing numbers increases conformity = can be normative or informational
support (conformity)
even one ally reduces conformity = normative
- even if ally is expected tobe “incompetent” at the task (“legally blind” ally)
- even if ally has difference view
Milgram’s study of destructive obedience
everyone was focused on personality features (ex the authoritarian personality, German parenting styles, etc)
Milgram focused on the power of the social situation
Yale “teacher/learner” studies - broad American community sample
regular audience - less than 5% will go all the way
clinical psychologists - around 1-3% will go all the way
65% of people went all the way to the end:
- power of the situation, paradigm shift in psychology
are we cruel? no
Milgram’s study pt 2
moved to less reputable lab and made the experimenter dislikeable - would have stopped if normative, changed nothing
made the learner a woman - no
made the teacher a woman - no
but seeing another person refusing to follow orders caused a 10% drop because of informational influence
door in face
small requests are granted more often if first get a refusal of a large request - more likely to take delinquents to the zoo if asked (and refuse) to work with them twice a week for six months = compromise
reciprocity norm
more likely to comply with a request after being given a small token (why charities send calendars or address labels with request, if given a small gift we feel more obligated)
foot in the door
large requests are granted more often if preceded by a small request (because we want to be consistent with our past self) - canned goods study: agreeing to do a small phone survey made it more likely folks would later agree to allow a day-long inventory
low ball technique
change terms of agreement after verbal commitment, still get compliance (car sales are infamous for this)
abnormal (mental disorders)
deviance from social norms of acceptability - “abnormal” differs across cultures and crosses and across times in history (ex Great Depression: no one threw away anything, now the same behavior would be considers hoarding)
maladaptive (mental disorders)
interferes with at least one large sphere of life - work, relationships etc
personal distress (mental disorders)
or risk of harm to self/others
one can behave very differently from social norms but if its not maladaptive or increased distress it is not a disorder
clinical disorders
generally more severe, can be temporary or long-lasting, resulting in low level of functioning and/or high distress, leading to a diagnosis
personality disorders
milder disorders, longstanding, usually a higher level of functioning, may not necessarily seek treatment
diagnostic manual (DSM5)
provides common language/dictionary for professionals to discuss common clusters of symptoms
anxiety disorders
highest prevalence - 30% for lifetime, 1% college students subclinical anxiety
severe, irrational fear or worry that disrupts functioning
generalized anxiety
chronic high level of anxiety without a specific focus
“free-floating” anxiety
hypervigilance - attentional bias toward potential threats
phobias
specific fear of an object or action, irrationally exaggerated, interferes with life
simple phobias: role of evolutionary preparedness in prevalence of targets of simple phobia
social anxiety
fear of speaking, eating, or performing in public or of social interaction more generally
most prevalent phobia 5-13% of general population
emerges in teen years
risk factor: inhibited temperament
panic disorder
recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety and terror
feels like you are dying, overwhelming sense of doom
fear of attack is more debilitating than the attacks themselves
moderately heritable (40%)
triggered by life stressor
resutls in “anxiety sensitivity” an oversensitivity to one’s own physiological responses
Obsessive Compulsive disorder
intrusive anxiety-provoking thoughts, sometimes with uncontrollable urges to reduce anxiety
fully aware of the irrationality of these thoughts
compulsions (OCD)
ritualistic actions that reduce anxiety, often linked to obsessions
obsessions (OCD)
- cleanliness/order
- the safety of home or family
- harm to others
risk factors - OCD
obsessions sometimes may be caused by damage to caudate nucleus (after viral infection or autoimmune) leading to intrusive thoughts
compulsions thought to be compensation and result from operant conditioning, specifically a reflection of negative reinforcement
an action that reduces anxiety is repeated and can become a compulsion
depression
presence of sad, empty or irritable mood accompanied by somatic and cognitive changes that significantly impact and individual’s ability to function
depressive disorders
duration, timing and etiology
major depressive disorder
depressed mood and/or diminished interest/pleasure most of the day nearly every day
5 or more symptoms
duration: 2-weeks
impact: significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning
persistent depressive disorder
depressed mood most of the day nearly every day
2 or more symptoms
duration: 2 years without a break lasting more than 2 months at a time
impact: significant distress or impairment in important areas of functioning
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
5 or more symptoms one of which must be marked irritability,depressed mood or anxiety
duration: present in final week before the onset of menses and start to improve within a few days of the start of menses and become minimal/absent in the week post menses
impact: significant distress of impairment in important areas of functioning
other specified depressive disorder
symptoms characteristic of a depressive disorder that cause significant distress or impairment to daily life but do not meet full creitieria for any disorders
specifiers (seasonal)
seasonal pattern: regular and temporal relationship btw onset of depression and a particular time of year, full remissions also occur at characteristic time of year
happened at least twice in the past 2 years
specifiers (peripartum)
onset of mood symptoms occurs during pregnancy or in the 4 weeks following delivery
biological causes of depression
heritable - twin studies
polygenetic - no one gene for depression
involves more than one monoamine (norepinephrine, serotonin)
environmental causes of depression
diathesis-stress model - describes the trajectory of symptoms as the result of an interaction btw a predispositions vulnerability (the diathesis) and stress caused by life experiences
life stress - chronic/acute, interpersonal/nonpersonal, threat/loss
cognitive processes (depression)
overgneralizing, catastrophizing, black and white thinking, personalization
external locus of control (depression)
believe they are unable to control their life, negative events are stable and global, positive events are few and far between and local
suicide
non-suicidal self-injury, suicidal ideation
desire, intent and plan
protective factors - social support, fear of death/dying, pets and children
schizophrenia
“split mind” disturbances of though that spill over to affect perceptual, social and emotional processes - low prevalence (0.5-1%)
schizophrenia expanded
emerges/diagnoses in late teens and 20s
deterioration in function due to:
- delusions/irrational thought
- hallucinations
- disorganized incoherent speech
- disorganized/strange behavior
- disturbed emotional expressions/flat affect
schizophrenia symptoms
positive symptoms: presence of experiences that are non-normative = hallucinations, delusions
negative symptoms: absence of experiences that are normative = flat affect, lack of motivation or lack of sociality
positive symptoms are easier to great than negative, negative more common in men
genetic risk factors (schizophrenia)
hereditary predisposition, twice in relation in identical twins vs fraternal twins (50% likelihood if twin is diagnosed)
brain abnormalities (schizophrenia)
overabundance of dopamine, differences in structure (larger ventricles) inefficient neurotransmission due to abnormal glial cells/myelin
prenatal environment (schizophrenia)
virus hypothesis, flu in mom when pregnant (2nd trimester) associated with schizophrenia
postnatal environment (schizophrenia)
stress is a factor in both onset and relapse, being raised in urban environment doubles the risk, family dysfunction increases risk
substance use disorders
substance use that causes impairment of important life domains and/or stress
classified as mild, moderate or severe depending on how many of the diagnostic criteria you meet (11 DSM-5 criteria)
SUD criteria
physical or psychological problems
time spent using
hazardous use
social or interpersonal problems
neglected major roles
activities are given up
withdrawal
tolerance
larger amounts/longer
craving
repeated attempts to control use or quit
neuroplasticity
hypothesis: dopamine “wanting” or reward pathway adapts to chronic drug stimulation
- hijacked to motivate and reward drug use and ignore other behavior
feel unpleasant withdrawal symptoms cravings that can only be alleviated by more drug use, thus drugs become highly negatively reinforcing
genetic vulnerability (SUD)
30-60% heritable
“addictive personality”: more neurotic, less conscientious and less agreeable, more impulsive (lower activation of orbital frontal cortex)
Rat Park study (SUD)
rats in empty cage will self-administer morphine until they die, but put in an open space together (rat park) they stop taking the morphine, even if you lace the morphine-water with glucose and even if you get them all “addicted” before putting them in rat park
Alexandar’s conclusion: anxious, terrified, isolated rats choose to cope by taking morphie
Vietnam War case study
after the VW only 12% of American soldiers who were addicted to heroin in Vietnam stayed addicted when they came home
- shows influence of environment and influence of trauma
implies there are lots of people who experience trauma in drug-friendly environments who might use but don’t become addicted when the environment changes to become more supportive/less stressful
biological/pharmacological therapies
treatment of disordered “brain”, most common drug treatment
“talk” therapy and behavioral therapy
treatment of disordered “mind”, several varieties used for different disorders
antipsychotics (biological therapies)
dopamine antagonists, effective for decreasing positive symptoms
antidepressants (biological therapies)
target serotonin, norepinephrine and/or dopamine
anti-anxiety drugs (biological therapies)
GABA agonists, may be addictive most useful for short term therapy, paired with behavioral therapy, long term use recently linked to risk for Alzheimer’s
new depression treatments (biological therapies)
ketamine = infusions result in rapid effects
psilocybin - still being explored also works on glutamate and may be longer lasting (not FDA approved yet)
anti-inflammatory drugs
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
TMS over the left frontal regions has been studied as potential treatment for depression
deep brain stimulation of the caudate nucleus has been successful in treating OCD
psychoanalysis (Freud)
Assumption → source of problems is unconscious conflict
“Insight” therapy → verbal interactions between therapist and client designed to enhance self-knowledge and produce psychological change
Purpose = to discover unconscious conflicts and motives that are causing symptoms
free association and dream analysis (psychoanalysis)
(therapist looks for slips of the tongue or dream symbols) taps the unconscious
Often old relationships reenacted in transference to therapist
Therapist seen as having all the answers, does all interpretation
client-centered (Humanist)
Assumption → client can heal themselves with support and assistance in clarifying their own thoughts
Rogerian therapy (client-centered)
purpose = to lead to self-awareness and self-acceptance
client-paced conversations about troubling issues in their lives - therapist reflects back what the client said to enable clarification
client-centered pt 2
client is seen as having all the answers, therapist is there in a supporting role to help the client understand own feelings
cognitive therapies
Assumptions → source of the problem is unhelpful/unhealthy patterns of thinking that can be changed (with CBT also emphasis on adding better-coping behaviors)
purpose - lead to rational thoughts and perceptions of self and problems
cognitive
gentle change, therapist is warm and non-confrontational, gives homework assignments to help client restructure beliefs
rational/emotive
therapist assertively confronts “irrational beliefs”
automatic thoughts (cognitive therapy)
clients are asked to pay attention to these thoughts and taught to replace maladaptive thoughts with more adaptive patterns
behavior therapies
assumption - clients best served when focus on behavior symptom not on the thought that leads to it
behavior therapy example
systematic desensitization for phobia treatment, reduces phobia or anxious response through progressive counterconditioning
- anxiety hierarchy
- deep relaxation training
- association of events in hierarchy with relaxation
flooding (behavior therapy)
flooding - facing fear at a high level, assuming doing so will break the exaggerated terror, safety confront a feared stimulus that is high on the anxiety hierarchy
exposure (behavior therapy)
OCD, face their anxiety and learn to cope without the ritual
observation training
relies on observational learning to encourage behaviors that enhance social skills, self-care tasks, communication skills
used in schizophrenia and social anxiety especially in children
clients use “role models” and try to mimic their behavior through role play and practice
reinforced/praised/rewarded when they succeed
positive psychology
mental health is more than the absence of mental illness
strong science and understanding and treating mental illness but less devoted to high levels of mental health
40% of overall well-being is due to intentional activities (spending time with loved ones, use of time has a broader meaning)
