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Psych Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Critical Thinking

A

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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2
Q

Structuralism

A

Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

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3
Q

Functionalism

A

Early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

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4
Q

“For a lot of bad ideas, science is society’s garbage disposal.” Describe what this tells us about the scientific attitude and what’s involved in critical thinking.

A

Many ideas and questions may be scrutinized scientifically, and the bad ones end up discarded as a result. Scientific thinking combines (1) curiosity about the world around us, (2) skepticism about unproven claims and ideas, and (3) humility about one’s own understanding. This process leads us to evaluate evidence, assess conclusions, and examine our own assumptions, which are essential parts of critical thinking.

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5
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

Established first psychology laboratory. Seeked to measure “atoms of the mind” - the fastest and simplest mental processes.

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6
Q

What event defined the start of scientific psychology?

A

Scientific psychology began in Germany in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory.

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7
Q

Aristotle

A

Theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality. Asked the right questions. Believed the source of our personality/seat of mental processes is our heart. Denied the existence of innate ideas.

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8
Q

Empirical Approach

A

Testing a hypothesis with research based on observed and measured phenomena; conclusions are exclusively derived from concrete, verifiable evidence.

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9
Q

Edward Bradford Titchener

A

Relied on self-report data. Encouraged introspection, training people to report their sensations and experience to stimuli.

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10
Q

Why did introspection fail as a method for understanding how the mind works?

A

People’s self-reports varied, depending on the experience and the person’s intelligence and verbal ability.

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11
Q

As introspection waned, so did…

A

structuralism.

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12
Q

William James

A

Studied the functions of our thoughts and feelings. Believed that thinking developed because it was adaptive - it contributed to our ancestors’ survival.

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13
Q

The school of ________ used introspection to define the mind’s makeup; ________ focused on how mental processes enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

A

structuralism, functionalism

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14
Q

Mary Whiton Calkins

A

Memory researcher and first APA female president in 1905.

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15
Q

Margaret Floy Washburn

A

Second APA female president in 1921 and first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. She wrote “The Animal Mind” (animal behavior research).

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16
Q

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner

A

Championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. Famous “Little Albert” experiment.

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17
Q

Behaviorism

A

“The scientific study of observable behavior.”
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. (Most psychs today agree with 1 but not with 2.)

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18
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Behaviorist who rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.

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19
Q

Classical conditioning

A

John B. Watson - a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. (dog drooling - Ivan Pavlov)

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20
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

B.F. Skinner - a method of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

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21
Q

Freudian Psychology

A

The theory that our unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior.

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22
Q

Humanistic Psychology

A

(Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow)
Perspective that emphasized human growth potential. Focused on ways current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential and the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied.

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23
Q

Psychology

A

the science of behavior and mental processes

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24
Q

From the 1920s through the 1960s, the two major forces in psychology were _______ and _______ psychology.

A

behaviorism, Freudian

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25
Q

Cognitive Revolution 1960s

A

Explores how information is perceived, processed, and remembered and studies the cognitive roots of anxiety, depression, and other psychological disorders.

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26
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language); interdisciplinary field that studies the science of the brain and the science of the mind.

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27
Q

Plato

A

Greek philosopher that assumed we inherit character and intelligence and that certain ideas are inborn.

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28
Q

Nature-Nurture issue

A

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

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29
Q

Natural Selection

A

the principle that those chance inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

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30
Q

Charles Darwin

A

His 1859 “On the Origin of Species” he proposed the evolutionary process of natural selection.

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31
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

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32
Q

Behavior Genetics

A

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

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33
Q

How did the cognitive revolution affect the field of psychology?

A

It recaptured the field’s early interest in mental processes and made them legitimate topics for scientific study.

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34
Q

Culture

A

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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35
Q

Cross-Cultural Psych

A

Culture shapes behavior, but the underlying processes are universal (the same).

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36
Q

Martin Seligman

A

Researches human flourishing with the positive psychology approach.

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37
Q

Positive Psychology

A

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

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38
Q

Levels of Analysis

A

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. Each by itself is incomplete.

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39
Q

Biopsychosocial Approach

A

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

40
Q

Biological Influences

A

Genetic predispositions
Genetic mutations
Natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations
Genes responding to the environment

41
Q

Psychological Influences

A

Learned fears and other learned expectations
Emotional responses
Cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations

42
Q

Social-Cultural Influences

A

Presence of others
Cultural, societal, and family expectations
Peer and other group influences
Compelling models (such as in media)

43
Q

Neuroscience

A

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences.

44
Q

Evolutionary

A

How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes.

45
Q

Behavior Genetics

A

How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences.

46
Q

Psychodynamic

A

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

47
Q

Behavioral

A

How we learn observable responses.

48
Q

Cognitive

A

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

49
Q

Social-Cultural

A

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

50
Q

Basic Research

A

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

51
Q

Applied Research

A

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

52
Q

Counseling Psychology

A

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

53
Q

Clinical Psychology

A

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

54
Q

Psychiatry

A

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

55
Q

Community Psychology

A

A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

56
Q

How do the scientific attitude’s three main components relate to critical thunking?

A

The scientific attitude equips us to be curious, skeptical, and humble in scrutinizing competing ideas or our own observations. This attitude carries into everyday life as critical thinking, which puts ideas to the test by examining assumptions, appraising the source, discerning hidden biases, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions.

57
Q

Intuition

A

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

58
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

59
Q

Theory

A

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

60
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

61
Q

Operational Definition

A

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

62
Q

Replication

A

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

63
Q

What does a good theory do?

A
  1. It organizes observed facts.
  2. It implies hypotheses that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications. 3. It often stimulates further research.
64
Q

Why is replication important?

A

When other investigators are able to replicate an experiment with the same (or better) results, scientists can confirm the result and become more confident in its reliability.

65
Q

Case Studies

A

(In-depth analysis of individuals or groups) A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

66
Q

Naturalistic Observations

A

(Recording individuals’ behavior in their natural setting) A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

67
Q

Surveys and Interviews

A

Self-reports in which people answer questions about their behavior or attitudes

68
Q

We cannot assume that case studies always reveal general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?

A

Case studies involve only one individual or group, so we can’t know for sure whether the principles observed would apply to a larger population.

69
Q

Survey

A

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

70
Q

Population

A

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

71
Q

Random Sample

A

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

72
Q

What is an unrepresentative sample and how do researchers avoid it?

A

An unrepresentative sample is a group that does not represent the population being studied. Random sampling helps researchers form a representative sample, because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.

73
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

74
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00). Helps us see to what extent two things relate.

75
Q

Experiment

A

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

76
Q

Experimental Group

A

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

77
Q

Control Group

A

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

78
Q

Independent Variable

A

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

79
Q

Confounding Variable

A

A factor other than the factor being studied that might produce an effect.

80
Q

Dependent Variable

A

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

81
Q

Informed Consent

A

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

82
Q

Debriefing

A

The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

83
Q

Testing Effect

A

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a “retrieval practice effect” or “test-enhanced learning.”

84
Q

SQ3R

A

A study method incorporating five steps:
Survey
Question
Read
Retrieve (Recite)
Review

85
Q

The _______ _______ describes the enhanced memory that results from repeated retrieval rather than from simple rereading of new information.

A

Testing effect

86
Q

How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion?

A

Our everyday thinking can be perilous because of three phenomenon: hindsight bias, overconfidence, and a tendency to perceive order/seek a pattern in random events, leading us to overestimate our intuition.

87
Q

What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?

A

In a positive correlation, two factors increase or decrease together. In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases. A correlation coefficient can describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) through zero (no correlation at all) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). A correlation can indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying third factor may explain the correlation.

88
Q

What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?

A

To discover cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating one or more factors of interest and controlling other factors. Using random assignment, they can minimize confounding variables, such as preexisting differences between the experimental group and the control group. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect.

89
Q

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

A

Researches intentionally create a controlled, artificial environment in the lab in order to test general theoretical principles. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

90
Q

Why do psychologists study animals?

A

Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal behavior while others want to better understand the physiological and psychological processes shared by humans and other species.

91
Q

What ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants?

A

Animal protection legislation, laboratory regulation and inspection, and local ethics committees serve to protect animal and human welfare.
Government agencies have established standards for animal care and housing. Professional associations and funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals’ well-being. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants’ well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later.

92
Q

How do human values influence psychology?

A

Psychologists’ values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice.

93
Q

How can critical thinking help you evaluate claims in the media?

A

Critical thinking examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

94
Q

You wish to survey a group of people who truly represent the population. The best way to ensure this is to question a _______ sample of the population, in which each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

A

Representative

95
Q

The laboratory environment is designed to ________.

A

re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions.

Psychology (4 decks)

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