Psych: Chapter 1

Question 1

What 3 phenomena do not allow us to rely solely on intuition and common sense?

Answer 1

The hindsight bias, judgmental overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events.

Question 2

Define: The hindsight bias

Answer 2

The hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along-phenomenon)

Question 3

Why, after friends start dating, do we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together?

Answer 3

We often suffer from hindsight bias-after we’ve learned of a situation’s outcome, that outcome seems familiar and therefore obvious.

Question 4

What is the Scientific Attitude?

Answer 4

It means being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible.

Question 5

To put Scientific Attitude to the test, what do you need?

Answer 5

Putting a scientific attitude into practice requires not only curiosity and skepticism but also humility- an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives.

Question 6

Define: Critical Thinking

Answer 6

Critical Thinking is thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
*Also known as “Smart Thinking”

Question 7

How does the Scientific Attitude contribute to Critical thinking?

Answer 7

The scientific attitude combines (1)Curiosity about the world around us (2)Skepticism toward carious claims and ideas and (3)Humility about one’s own understanding. Evaluating evidence, assessing conclusions and examining our own assumptions are essential parts of critical thinking.

Question 8

What is the Scientific Method?

Answer 8

It includes: Theories (sleep boosts memory), which leads to Hypotheses (when sleep deprived, people remember less from the day before), which leads to Research and Observations (give study material to people before a)an ample night’s sleep, or b)a shortened night’s sleep, then test the memory), THEN confirm, reject or revise.

Question 9

Define: Theory

Answer 9

A theory is an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Question 10

Define: Hypothesis

Answer 10

A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Question 11

Define: Operational Definition

Answer 11

Operational definition is a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.”

Question 12

Define: Replication

Answer 12

Replication is repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Question 13

Define: Case Study

Answer 13

Case study is an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Question 14

Research can be divided into:

Answer 14

Descriptive, Correlation, and Experimental

Question 15

What does Descriptive Research include?

Answer 15

Descriptive Research includes: Case Study, Naturalistic Observation and Surveys.

Question 16

What is case studies?

Answer 16

It is analyses of special individuals.

Question 17

What is naturalistic observation?

Answer 17

It is watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals.

Question 18

What is surveys and interviews?

Answer 18

Doing research by asking people questions WITH random sampling of a representative group.

Question 19

Define: Population

Answer 19

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Question 20

Define: Random Sample

Answer 20

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Question 21

Why is wording effects important?

Answer 21

Even subtle changes in the order or wording of questions can have major effects. Wording is such a delicate matter, critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect people’s expressed opinions.

Question 22

Define: Correlation

Answer 22

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Providing a prediction of a relationship, but does not prove causation.

Question 23

Define: Positive Correlation

Answer 23

Positive correlation occurs if two sets of scores fall or rise together.

Question 24

Define: Negative Correlation

Answer 24

Negative correlation is when two sets of scores relate inversely. One goes up, as the other goes down.

Question 25

Define: Correlation Coefficient

Answer 25

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). A correlation coefficient helps us to see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two things relate.

Question 26

To find answers to questions, and to isolate cause and effect, what kind of research is used?

Answer 26

Experimentation

Question 27

Define: Experiment

Answer 27

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors ( independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process ( the dependant variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. Only research that determines cause/effect

Question 28

Define: Experimental group

Answer 28

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Question 29

Define: Control group

Answer 29

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Question 30

Define: Random assignment

Answer 30

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Question 31

Define: Double blind procedure

Answer 31

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evauation studies.

Question 32

Define: Placebo effect

Answer 32

Latin for “I shall please” Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Question 33

Define: Independent variable

Answer 33

The experimental facto that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Question 34

Define: Confounding variable

Answer 34

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Question 35

Define: Dependent variable

Answer 35

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the in dependent variable. ( What is being measured)

Question 36

What is the basic purpose of Descriptive research?

Answer 36

To observe and record behaviour. It is conducted by doing case studies, naturalistic observation or surveys.

Question 37

What is the basic purpose of Correlation research?

Answer 37

To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another. It is conducted by collecting data on tow or more variables; no manipulation.

Question 38

What is the basic purpose of Experimental research?

Answer 38

To explore cause and effect. It is conducted by manipulating one or more factors; use random assignment.

Question 39

Define: Mode

Answer 39

Mode is the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution.

Question 40

Define: Mean

Answer 40

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Question 41

Define: Median

Answer 41

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below.

Question 42

Define: Standard deviation

Answer 42

The more useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another is the standard deviation. A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Question 43

Define: Range

Answer 43

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Question 44

Define: Normal curve

Answer 44

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.