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MCAT Psych > Psych Ch 1 & 2 > Flashcards

Psych Ch 1 & 2 Flashcards

Brain & Perception

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1
Q

What are the meninges?

A

“The meninges are a thick, triple layer of connective tissue that wraps the brain.

Their function is to protect the brain, keep it anchored in the skull, and reabsorb cerobrospinal fluid.

”

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2
Q

What are the three layers of meninges, from outer to inner most?

A

“1. Dura Matter

  1. Arachnoid Matter
  2. Pia matter


“

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3
Q

What are the three basic divisions of the human brain?

A

”

  1. Hindbrain
  2. Midbrain
  3. Forebrain

”

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4
Q

Describe the basic functional/structural motif of the 3 basic divisions of the brain?

A

The brain is organized as the hindbrain on bottom, the midbrain in the middle, and the forebrain on top.

The lower structures like the low brain and midbrain are dedicated to basic survival operations like control of heart rate and balance.

The upper structures like the forebrain are dedicated to complex intellectual operations like integrating sensory info, sending motor commands, or thinking.

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5
Q

Together, the midbrain and the hindbrain form the {{c1::brainstem::what brain structure?}}

A

” ”

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6
Q

What are ventricles?

A

“Fluid filled cavities in the brain.


“

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7
Q

What are the 5 major neural structures in the forebrain?

A
  1. Cerebral Cortex
  2. Basal Ganglia
  3. Limbic System
  4. Thalamus
  5. Hypothalamus
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8
Q

What are the basic overall functions of the structures in the hindbrain?

A

“Basic survival processes like the control of balance, breathing, digestion, and general arousal like sleeping and waking.


“

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9
Q

What are the basic overall functions of structures in the midbrain?

A

“The midbrain receives sensory and motor information and is associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli.


“

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10
Q

What are the basic overall functions of the structures in the forebrain?

A

The structures of the forebrain are associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes.

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11
Q

As the neural tube develops into the embryonic brain, what are its three basic divisions?

A

”

  1. The prosencephalon (Forebrain)
  2. The mesencephalon (midbrain)
  3. The rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
    ”
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12
Q

As the embryonic brain develops further, its 3 basic divisions will turn into 5. Describe the 5 divisions of the embryonic brain.

A

”

As the brain develops, the prosencephalon branches into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. Also, the rhomboencephalon splits into the metencephalon and the myelencephalon.
”

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13
Q

As the organism develops, the myelencephalon eventually becomes the {{c1::medulla oblongata::what neural structure?}}

A

” ”

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14
Q

As the organism develops, the metencephalon eventually becomes the {{c1::pons and the cerebellum::what 2 neural structures?}}

A

” ”

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15
Q

What is neuropsychology?

A

Neuropsychology is the study of how phenomona in the brain affect or determine psychological processes.

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16
Q

What is a CT?

A

A CT scan is just a series of X-rays taken at different angles and then combined by a computer to make cross sectional images of tissue.

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17
Q

What is a PET scan?

A

“A PET scan is when a radioactive sugar is injected into the body. Because the sugar is radioactive, you can watch it as it is dispersed and uptaken by the body.

This is useful for finding cancers since they are very glucolytically active.


“

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18
Q

What is an MRI?

A

“An MRI is when a magnetic field is applied to the body in order to visualize the hydrogens. Hydrogen rich tissues will appear one way while hydrogen deficient spaces will appear another. You can visualize the body in this way.


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19
Q

What is fMRI?

A

“fMRI is the same basic technique as MRI, but specifically focuses on changes associated with the flow of blood. This is very useful in neuropsycholgy research as areas of the brain receiving high blood flow are usually areas of the brain that are being activated during that behavior.


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20
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

“The thalamus is a structure within the forebrain that serves as an important relay station for sensory info of all types except smell.

The thalamus sorts information it receives and sends it to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex for interpretation.


“

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21
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

“The hypothalamus is a neural structure in the forebrain that sits beneath the thalamus.


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22
Q

What are the 5 basic responsibilities of the hypothalamus?

A
  1. Feeding
  2. Fighting
  3. Flighting
  4. Fucking

MNEMONIC: THE 4 F’s

  1. And body wide homeostasis as both a neuro and an endocrine structure.
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23
Q

What are the 3 divisions of the hypothalamus?

A
  1. Lateral Hypothalamus
  2. Ventromedial Hypothalamus
  3. Anterior hypothalamus
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24
Q

Describe the lateral hypothalamus (LH).

A

The lateral hypothalamus generates feelings of hunger when the body does not have enough food or liquid.

MNEMONIC: When the LH is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger.

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25
Q

Describe the ventromedialhypothalamus (VMH).

A

The ventromedial hypothalamus promotes feelings of satiety when we’ve eat enough food.

MNEMONIC: Without a VMH you’d be Very Hungry.

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26
Q

Describe the anterior hypothalamus (AH)

A

The AH is in control of sexual behavior. It also regulates sleep and body temperature.

MNEMONIC: Without an AH you’d be Asexual.

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27
Q

What is the posterior pituitary gland?

A

“The posterior pituitary gland is a collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus where Oxytocin and ADH are stored and released.


“

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28
Q

What is the pineal gland?

A

“The pineal gland is a small projection in the brain that secretes melatonin. This gland receives input from the retina in order to coordinate sleeping and waking with the fall and rise of the sun.


“

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29
Q

What is the Basal ganglia?

A

“The basal ganglia are a group of structures in the brain that receive motor impulses from the cerebral cortex and send them to the muscles via the extrapyramidal portal system.

”

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30
Q

What is the extrapyramidal system?

A

The extrapyramidal system is the structure in the basal ganglia that transmits non-motor information to the spinal cord during movement initiated in the pyramidal system.

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31
Q

Does the extrapyramidal system initiate movement?

A

No! The extrapyramidal system sends information to the spinal cord from the cortex during movement.

This information is used to smoothe out and refine the movement already being generated by the somatic nervous system.

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32
Q

What is Parkinson’s Disease?

A

“Parkinson’s disease is a chronic illness associated with destruction of certain portions of the basal ganglia.

This is why a characteristic symptoms of Parkinson’s is jerky/strange movement.


“

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33
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

”

The limbic system is a series of structrues that loop around the central portion of the brain.
”

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34
Q

What are the four components of the limbic system?

A

“1. Septal Nuclei

  1. Amygdala
  2. Hippocampus
  3. Fornix


“

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35
Q

What is the septal nuclei?

A

“The septal nuclei is one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain. There is an association between these nuclei and addictive behavior as well.


“

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36
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

“The amygdala is a structure in the limbic system that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors including fear and rage.


“

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37
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

The hippocampus is a structure in the limbic system that plays a vital role in learning and memory processes.

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38
Q

In specific terms, what is the hippocampus’s role in memory?

A

The hippocampus helps consolidate information to form long term memories. It can also redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex (important in remembering!)

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39
Q

What is the fornix?

A

“The fornix is a long projection from the hippocampus. The hippocampus uses the projection to communicate with the other structures in the limbic system.

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40
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

Anterograde amnesia is when you are unable to establish new long-term memories, but you remember everything from before the incident.

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41
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

Retrogade amnesia is when you can form new long term memories, but you can’t remember things from before the incident.

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42
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

“The cerbral cortex (also called cerebrum and neocortex) is the outer surface of the brain. This neural structure is responsible for advanced cognitive function.


“

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43
Q

What are the 4 divisions of the cerebral cortex?

A

“1. Frontal Lobe

  1. Parietal Lobe
  2. Temporal Lobe
  3. Occipital Lobe


“

44
Q

What is the overall function of the frontal lobe?

A

” ”

45
Q

What is the overall function of the parietal lobe?

A

” ”

46
Q

What is the overall function of the temporal lobe?

A

” ”

47
Q

What is the overall function of the occipital lobe?

A

” ”

48
Q

Does the brain have a smooth surface?

A

“No, the surface of the brain is comprised of a series of bumps and folds.


“

49
Q

What is a gyrus?

A

“Gyrus is the name used to refer to the bumpy projections of the brain’s folded structure.


“

50
Q

What is a sulcus?

A

“Sulcus is the name used to refer to the inward folds of the brain’s folded structure.


“

51
Q

What is the function of the gyri and sulci?

A

The folded shape of the brain increases its surface area and allows it to fit more function into the same overall size.

52
Q

The cerebral cortex is divided into {{c1::2 hemispheres and 4 lobes.::how many hemispheres and lobes?}}

A

” ”

53
Q

What are the 4 important structures in the frontal lobe?

A

”

  1. Prefrontal cortex
  2. Premotor cortex
  3. Primary Motor cortex
  4. Broca’s area

”

54
Q

What is the central sulcus?

A

“The central sulcus is a sulcus that runs down the brain and separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.


“

55
Q

Where is the prefrontal cortex and what is its function?

A

“The prefrontal cortex is an association are in the anterior aspect of the frontal lobe. It is responsible for the management of our behaviors and the expression or manifestation of our thoughts.

The prefrontal cortex, interestingly, is primarily an inhibitory structure. This means that the prefrontal cortex actually tones down the signals from other parts of the brain so we can calmly and rationally integrate them.

To better understand the role of the prefrontal cortex, think of a person with a prefrontal lesion. Damage to the prefrontal cortex leads to impulsive behavior, loss of control of behavior, etc.


“

56
Q

What is an association area?

A

“An association area is an area of the brain that integrates input from many brain regions. These areas are usually associated with higher order and more complex cognition.


“

57
Q

What are projection areas?

A

Projection areas are parts of the brain that handle relatively small amounts of info and execut relatively simple processes.

Two examples of projection areas are the visual cortex and the motor cortex, because they only handle visual and motor info respectively.

58
Q

Where is the premotor cortex and what is its function?

A

“The premotor cortex is in between the primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex. It’s function is to prepare the muscles for exact movements.

Note: The Premotor cortex does not initiate movement, it just helps prepare for it.


“

59
Q

Where is the primary motor complex and what is its function?

A

“The primary motor complex is located on the prercentral gyrus (which is the ridge just in front of the centrul sulcus).

The primary motor complex is used to initiate voluntary motor movement by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord to the muscles.
“

60
Q

Where is Broca’s area and what is its function?

A

“Broca’s area is an area of the brain that can be found in the frontal lobe of a person’s dominant hemisphere (Dominant hemisphere is left for most people, bot left and right handed.)

We use Broca’s area to produce speech.
“

61
Q

What are the 2 important structures in the Parietal lobe?

A

“1. The primary sensory cortex

  1. The central portion/rest of the Parietal lobe.


“

62
Q

Where is the somatosensory cortex and what is its function?

A

“The somatosensory cortex is located on the post central gyrus (just behind the central sulcus) and is involved in processing all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.


“

63
Q

What is the function of the central parietal lobe?

A

“The central parietal lobe is associated with spatial processing and manipulation. This regionn makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, as well as spatially manipulate objects both in the real world and in our mind.


“

64
Q

What is the main structure in the Occipital lobe?

A

“The visual cortex (also referred to as striate cortex).


“

65
Q

What is the function of the visual cortex (and thereby the occipital lobe)

A

To receive, process, and direct all incoming visual sensory information.

66
Q

What are the 2 important structures in the temporal lobe?

A

“1. Wernicke’s area

  1. Auditory Cortex


“

67
Q

Where is Wernicke’s area and what is its function?

A

Wernicke’s area is in the temporal lobe. It is associated with language reception and comprehension.

68
Q

Where is the auditory cortex and what is its function?

A

“The auditory cortex is near the top of the temporal lobe.

It’s function is to process incoming sound sensory information such as music, speech, etc.
“

69
Q

Are the lobes actually as independent as we describe them to be?

A

No. Certain lobes do handle most of the load for certain things, like the occipital lobe and visual processing, but almost every single region of the brain can exhibit pertinent activity for almost any type of sensory input or desired motor output.

70
Q

What are the two hemispheres of the brain?

A
  1. Dominant Hemisphere
  2. Nondominant Hemisphere
71
Q

What are the characteristic functions of the dominant hemisphere?

A

“The dominant hemisphere is primarily analytic in function. It is detailed oriented. The dominant hemisphere is associated with logic, language, and math skills.

The dominant hemisphere is also where Broca’s and Wernicke’s area are usually found.


“

72
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

“The corpus callosum is a thick bundle of neurons that connects and transmits information across the hemispheres.


“

73
Q

What is laterality when discussing the brain?

A

Laterality refers to which side of the body the neurons in the brain innervate.

74
Q

What are the two types of laterality?

A
  1. Ipsilateral
  2. Contralateral
75
Q

What does it mean to communicate contralaterally?

A

“The brain communicates contralaterally when it innervates the opposite side of the body.

NOTE: This is the case for almost all neural activity.


“

76
Q

What does it mean to communicate ipsilaterally?

A

“Ipsilateral communication is when one of the hemispheres of the brain interacts with the same side of the body.

In an adult, one of the only systems that operates ipsilaterally is olfaction.


“

77
Q

List the 7 most important neurotransmitters.

A
  1. Acetylcholine.
  2. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
  3. Dopamine
  4. Serotonin
  5. GABA
  6. Glycine
  7. Glutamate

MNEMONIC: All Evil Ducks Should Grab Giant Guns

78
Q

Describe Acetylcholine’s function and behavioral effects.

A

Acetylcholine is a NT found in the CNS and PNS. It is used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles in the Somatic Nervous System. It is also used to operate the entirety of the Parasympathetic nervous system and the pre-ganglionic portion of the Sympathetic Nervous System.

Acetylcholine levels in the CNS are associated with attention and arousal. Loss of acetylcholine function in the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease.

79
Q

Describe Epinephrine (and norepinephrine’s) function and behavioral effects.

A

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are used to operate the post-ganglionic half of the sympathetic nervous system, and are thus responsible for its fight or flight physiological effects.

These NT’s are associated with feelings of alertness, wakefulness, and are associated with the feeling of emotion.

Low levels of epi and norepi are associated with depression. High levels are associated with mania.

80
Q

Describe Dopamine’s function and behavioral effects.

A

Dopamine plays an important role in movement and posture. High concentrations of this NT are usually found int he basal ganglia, which helps us keep our movements smooth.

Dopamine is also implicated in pleasure centers of the brain as a molecule responsible for feelings of pleasure, accomplishment, and motivation. Often, a person will get addicted to a substance because results in such a good dopamine hit.

Too much dopamine activity has been found to play a role in schizophrenia.

Parkinson’s disease is associated with a loss of dopamine producing neurons in the basal ganglia.

81
Q

Describe Serotonin and its behavioral effects?

A

Serotonin is generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming.

An oversupply of serotonin is thought to produce manic states, while an undersupply is thought to produce depression.

82
Q

Describe GABA and its behavioral effects.

A

GABA (y-aminobutyric acid) hyperpolarizes post-synaptic neurons, which inhibits them and makes them less likely to respond to incoming signals.

GABA is the main inhibitory and slowing down neutrotransmitter of the brain. It is thought to play a stablizing role in cognitive/behavioral activity.

83
Q

Describe Glycine and its behavioral effects

A

Glycine is an AA, but it can also serve as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, like GABA.

Like GABA, this is thought to have a stablizing effect on cognition and behavior.

84
Q

Describe Glutamate and its behavioral effects.

A

Glutamate is an AA, but it can also act as an excitatory transmitter in the CNS.

Glutamate excites neurons, which leads to more activity of any kind. Behavioral effects are varied, but are always associated with being too much of something not too little e.g. manic (way too much emotion) versus apathy (not enough emotion).

85
Q

Describe Endorphins and their behavioral effects in the body?

A

Endorphins are peptide neurotransmitters. They are used to decrease pain sensations.

Endorphins are also associated with a spaced out/euphoria behavior pattern.

86
Q

What is libido?

A

Libido is how sexual someone is and the extent to which they pursue mating opportunities. Libido is controlled by the sex hormones (estrogen in women, testosterone in men.)

87
Q

What are the characteristic functions of the non-dominant hemisphere?

A

”

The non dominant hemisphere is primarily connective/intuitive in function. It is feeling oriented. The non dominant hemisphere is associated with personality, creativity, and spatial abilities.

”

88
Q

What are the two types of behaviors in terms of nature versus nurture?

A
  1. Innate Behavior - Genetically programmed behaviors selected by evolution. These behaviors are seen in every single individual regardless of environment or experience.
  2. Learned Behaviors - Behaviors that the organism learns from its environment (the actual enviromnent itself, people nearby, care givers, etc.)
89
Q

What is adaptive value?

A

Adaptive value is the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits an individual’s evolutionary fitness.

For example, in alaska where there is a lot of snow, white fur has a huge adaptive value because it makes it a lot easier for animals to blend in.

90
Q

What is meant by nature versus nurture when discussing behavior?

A

”"”Nature vs. Nurture”” calls attention to the fact that there appear to be two main contributors to the way we act. 1st Nature, which are all the innate behaviors we evolved with. 2nd, Nurture, which are all the learned behaviors we picked up as a consequence of our unique situation in life.

The debate continues to rage as to which of these is most important, but it is clear that both Nature and Nurture are at least contributing to human behaviors.
“

91
Q

What are the three ways to test the degree of genetic influence on individual differences?

A
  1. Family Studies
  2. Twin Studies
  3. Adoption Studies
92
Q

How does a Family study work?

A

A family study relys on the assumption that genetically related individuals (a family) will be more similar genetically than random unrelated individuals.

These work by comparing rates of a given trait/disease among family members to rates of a given trait among random people.

If it is found that, within a family, there is a much higher chance to have a certain trait than in the random population, it may suggest that the trait is heritable.

For example, children of people with Schizophrenia are 13 times more likely to develop schizophrenia than the normal population. This suggest that schizophrenia may be passed down from parent to child genetically.

93
Q

How does a Twin Study work?

A

Twin Studies rely on the fact that Monozygotic twins are genetically identical.

This means that, in theory, if they are raised in the same environment with the same genes, they should end up behaving very similarly.

Twin Studies work by comparing traits in twins that were raised together versus twins that were raised apart.

These studies have shown that identical twins raised in different families behave more similarly than fraternal twins (50% same genetic info) raised in the same family.

This suggests a very strong genetic component to personality.

94
Q

How does an adoption study work?

A

Adoption studies rely on the assumption that an adopted child will be raised in the same family environment while having different genes (nature).

These work by comparing personality traits of the adopted child to both the adoptive parents and the biological parents.

In cases where the adopted child is more similar to the adopted parents, it may suggest the environment is more important in determing the behavior.

In cases where the adopted child is more similar to the biological parents, it may suggest the genetic code is more important in determining behavior.

95
Q

What are the two plates that appear in the developing neural tube?

A

“1. Alar Plate

  1. Basal plate


“

96
Q

What are the primitive reflexes?

A

The primitive reflexes are the reflexes we have when we are babies. We eventually grow out of these reflexes.

97
Q

What are the 4 primitive reflexes with which to be familiar?

A
  1. Rooting reflex
  2. Moro Reflex
  3. Babinski reflex
  4. Grasping reflex
98
Q

What is the rooting reflex?

A

” ”

99
Q

What is the Moro reflex?

A

”

The Moro reflex is the primitive startle reflex.

It consists of the baby stretching his arms out, flexing his legs in, and crying.

The Moro reflex can be elicited by startling the baby. Usually with a loud noise or by pretending to drop them by letting go of their head and leaning them backwards.


“

100
Q

What is the Babinski reflex?

A

“The babinski reflex is a peculiar primitive reflex where in the baby will fan the toes out in response to stimulation of the bottom of the foot.

As adults, we actually have the opposite reflex. We flex our toes in when something messes with the bottom of our foot.


“

101
Q

What is the grasping reflex?

A

“The grasping reflex occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.


“

102
Q

Describe, using no less than 6 major points and 4,000 words, how great meghan is.

A

“she da best


“

103
Q

What are motor skills and why are they useful?

A

Motor skills are the ability to control the movement of our body.

These skills are useful because they develop on a pretty consistent timeline in children, and so you can use the absence or presence of these skills to understand where a child is in his or her motor development and whether or not the child is ahead or behind.

104
Q

What are the two types of motor skills?

A
  1. Fine motor skills
  2. Gross motor skills
105
Q

What are fine motor skills?

A

Finre motor skills involve the small, precise movements of the fingers, toes, eyes, etc. These include things like tracking motion with the eyes, drawing things, catching objects, etcc.

106
Q

What are gross motor skills?

A

Gross motor skills incorpate movement from large groups of muscles at once. Gross motor skills are used to exhibit body-wide movements like walking, sitting down, etc.

107
Q

What is Stranger anxiety?

A

“Stranger anxiety is when children at infant ages express fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals.

Look at how anxious this baby is of the stranger holding it.


“

MCAT Psych (2 decks)

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