Psych Flashcards
MCAT Kaplan Psych ALL Chapters
1
Q
what cues are taken into account when <b>perceptually organizing</b>?
A
depth, form, motion, constancy
2
Q
what do binocular cues provide?
A
“depth perception(due to retinal disparity)<div><br></br></div><div>Retinal disparity is defined as the way that your left eye and your right eye view slightly different images. … Retinal disparity is important in gauging how far away objects are. The more difference (or greater disparity) between the image each eye has of the same object, the closer it is to you.</div><div><img></img></div>”
3
Q
what is convergence?
A
gives depth perception based on how much eyes are turned inward
4
Q
what do <b>monocular</b> cues provide?
A
“<b>relative size</b><img></img><div><br></br></div><div><b>interpositon</b></div><div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div><div><b>relative height</b></div><div><b><br></br></b></div><div><b><img></img><img></img></b></div><div><br></br></div><div><b>shading/countour</b></div><div><b><br></br></b></div><div><img></img></div><div><b>motion (through motion parallax) - </b>things farther away move slower, closer moves faster</div><div><br></br></div><div><b>constancy - </b>perception of object doesn’t change even if the image cast on the retina is diferent. <i>size constancy, shape constancy, color constancy</i></div>”
5
Q
how does your inner ear adapt to loud noises?
A
muscle contracts tympanic membrane to prevent damage
6
Q
what is proprioception?
A
“sense of ““self in space”””
7
Q
what is just noticeable difference? (and what is the weird vocab)
A
threshold at which you can <b>notice</b> a change in sensation (50% of the time)<div><br></br></div><div>If you’re inside/within/below the JND threshold you <b>CANT</b>notice a difference, if you’re outside/above the JND you <b>CAN</b>notice a difference</div><div><br></br></div><div>Remember JND threshold is <b>plus or minus</b></div>
8
Q
weber’s law?
A
“the ratio of background intensity to incremental intensity is constant<div><br></br></div><div>ΔI = Ik</div><div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div><div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div>”
9
Q
what is absolute threshold of sensation?
A
“minimum intensity of stimulus needed to correctly detect it 50% of the time<div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div><div><br></br></div>”
10
Q
what is a subliminal stimulus?
A
“stimulus that is just below our absolute threshold of sensation<div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div>”
11
Q
thermoception
A
temperature
12
Q
mechanoception
A
pressure
13
Q
nociception
A
pain
14
Q
proprioception
A
position
15
Q
non adapting neuron
A
neuron fires at constant rate
16
Q
slow adapting neuron
A
neuron fires rapidly at first then tapers off
17
Q
fast adapting neuron
A
fires as soon as stimulus starts, stops, then starts up again once stimulus stops
18
Q
what portion of the inner ear helps determine strength of rotation/movement of head?
A
“endolymph inside semicircular canals <div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div>”
19
Q
otolithic organs?
A
“utricle and saccule<div><br></br><div><b>calcium carbonate crystals</b> that drag hair cells with the help of gravity to determine linear acceleration</div><div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div><div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div></div>”
20
Q
what is signal detection theory?
A
“discerning between important and unimportant stimuli.<div><br></br></div><div>can have hit, miss, false alarm, or correct rejection</div><div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div>”
21
Q
what is d’ (d prime, signal detection theory)?
A
“strength of a signal<div><br></br></div><div><img></img></div>”
22
Q
what is c (signal detection theory?)
A
strategy used
23
Q
what is the liberal strategy (signal detection theory?)
A
always saying yes, youll get all the hits but might get false alarms
24
Q
what is the conservative strategy? (signal detection theory)
A
always say no unless 100% sure, will correctly get all false rejections but might get some misses
25
what is bottom-up processing? accuracy level?
"stimulus affects our perception, data driven (always right)
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Details go to big picture
26
what is top-down processing?
"uses background knowledge to influence perceptions (cube illusion). theory driven
theory down to detail
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27
what is gestalt's law of similarity?
"items similar to one another grouped together
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28
what is gestalt's law of pragnanz
"reality reduced to simplest form possible (think, olympic rings). instead of seeing 5 rings you see olympic logo
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29
what is gestalt's law of proximity?
"items that are close together are grouped together
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30
what is gestalt's law of continuity?
"lines are seen as following smoothest possible path
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31
what is gestalt's law of closure?
"objects grouped together are seen as whole (filling in a triangle where there is none, pacman shit)
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32
what is gestalt's law of symmetry?
"you perceive symmetry in objects and forming around a central point
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33
what is the conjunctiva?
"thin layer of cells that line the inside of eyelids from the eye
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34
what is the cornea and its fxn?
"covers over pupil, serves to bend light primarily.
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compose of thick connective tissue
anterior 1/6th
35
what is the anterior chamber of the eye?
"filled with aqueous humor - provides pressure to maintain shape of the eyball - allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris
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36
what is the aqeous humor?
composes the anterior chamber, provides support, in front of pupil
37
what is the pupil?
"opening in middle of iris. opens and closes due to iris contraction.
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38
what is the iris?
"gives the eye color - muscle that constricts/relaxes to change the size of the pupil
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39
what is the lens of the eye?
"located behind pupil, bends light towards fovea. changes shape based on suspentory ligaments![]()
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40
what is the ciliary body?
suspensory ligaments+ciliary muscle
41
what is the posterior chamber?
"area between iris and lens, filled with aqueous humor
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42
what is the vitreous chamber?
"filled with vitreous humor, jelly like substance, gives pressure to eye
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43
what is the retina?
"covers back of eye, contains many of the necessary photoreceptors
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44
what is the macula?
"area of retina with high cone density
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45
what is the fovea and why does it dimple in?
"special part of macula that has ONLY cones. Dimples in so there are no axons in the way from light directly hitting cones (higher detail)
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46
what do cones do?
detect color, high detailed shit
47
what do rods do
detect light, not as fine detail
48
what is the choroid?
"black pigmented network of blood vessels used to nourish the eye
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49
what is the sclera?
"thick fibrous tissue covering posterior 5/6 of eye. (1/6 covered by cornea)![]()
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50
what happens when light hits a rod?
rod turned OFF-->bipolar cell turned ON-->retinal ganglion cell turned ON-->goes to brain
51
what happens to retinal when struck by light?
converts from cis-retinal to all trans retinal
52
what are the basic steps of the phototransduction cascade?
"light hits retinal-->retinal changes conformation to trans-->rhodopsin protein changes conformation-->transducin released-->transducin binds to phosphodiesterase-->lower levels of cGMP-->Na+ channels close-->rod turns OFF (hyperpolarized)
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53
what are optic discs? (and alternate definition)
"located inside rods/cones. contain proteins that fire APs to brain
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also term for Blind spot??
54
are there more rods or more cones?
more rods
20x more rods in each eye
55
rods are specialized for perceiving?
light vs dark, black vs white, very sensitive to light vision
56
rods have a very ___ recovery time compared to cones,
slow. which is why takes time to adjust to a dark room
57
cones are found primarily in the
fovea
60% red
30% green
10% blue
58
there is a blind spot in the eye where
the optic nerve connects
59
why is there higher resolution at the fovea?
"no axons in the way of light entering
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60
the right visual field goes to the __ side of the brain
left
61
light from the left visual field will strike..
"the right temporal and left nasal retinas
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62
light from the right visual field will strike the
"left temporal and right nasal retina
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63
nerves from the nasal retinas cross over at the
"optic chiasm
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64
what are the 3 elements of feature detection? what sense is it used for?
"color, form, motion
"
Feature detection involves the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors. Feature detectors are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli.
Feature detection occurs for all the senses but is most often described regarding vision. Feature detectors in the visual system respond to aspects of the visual stimulus, such as horizontal lines or right angles (among others). The visual system is organized such that feature detectors synapse on neurons that respond to more complex stimuli (eg, faces) localized in certain areas of the brain (eg, fusiform face area)
EXCLUSIVELY VISION
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65
what is the parvo(cellular) pathway?
"form - spatial resolution, details, color - cones, bad at detecting motion
detects form and color, magno detects depth and motion
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(ONLY STATIONARY - POOR TEMPORAL RESOLUTION - time)
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mnemonic: pink pyramid (a type of ""form""/""shape"")
66
what is the magno(cellular) pathway?
"good at detecting motion (and depth according to uworld), rods responsible
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HIGH TEMPORAL resolution (think time, motion)
POOR SPATIAL - no color
RODS
mnemonic: picture magneto moving shit
67
what is audition?
our sense of sound
68
what are the 2 things needed to perceive sound?
"pressurized sound wave and hair cells in ear
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69
higher or lower wavelength penetrated deeper into cochlea?
higher wavelength, smaller frequency, travels further
70
what is the outer(visible) part of the ear known as?
"pinna
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71
what are the 3 bones in the inner ear?
"malleus, incus, stapes(hammer, anvil, stirrup). AKA ossicles
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72
the stapes is attached to the ____
"oval window, pushes in when vibrating
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73
what is the function of the round window?
"bulges out when fluid pushes against it
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74
what is the organ of corti?
"basilar membrane/tectonic membrane that divide cochlea
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75
what portions of the ear are the outer ear?
"from pinna --> TM
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76
what portions of the ear are the middle ear?
"where the ossicles are
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77
what portions of the ear are the inner ear?
"the cochlea/semicircular canals
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78
the fluid pushes on what part of the hair cell?
"the hair bundle, composed of kinocilia
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79
what causes the action potiential to be sent down the auditory nerve?
"kinocilia within hair bundle move, connected to tip link, tip link movement allows K+ flow, K+ flow leads to Ca+2 flow, leading to AP sent to spiral ganglion cell which activates auditory nerve
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80
what frequencies can humans hear?
20Hz to 20kH
81
what is basilar tuning?
"how brain differentiates between different frequencies. hair cells at base of cochlea activated by high freq and apex of chochlea are activated by low freq (think, low freq means high wavelength so it travels faster)
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82
what is sensory adaptation and why is it important?
"receptor changing over time due to stimulus. can downregulate or upregulate (think hand on table, no change in pressure so receptor will stop firing until it changes again). Important because too much stimulation can kill cell (Ex. consitently releasing capsaicin for pain)
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83
what is the somatosensory homunculus?
"map of body in brain, specific region of body has specific region in cortex
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84
what is found in muscles that give us information about how they are stretched?
"spindle fibers (allow for proprioception)
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85
what is kinaesthesia and how is it different from proprioception?
"kinaesthesia is more behavioral while proprioception is more subconcious/cognitive.
kinaesthesia more related to movement than sense of position in space
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Ex. teaching yourself how to hit a ball
86
what is the the TrpV1 receptor and how does it function?
"receptor that causes signaling for both heat and pain. Heat causes conformational change in the protein, poking disturbs thousands of cells which release molecules that activate the receptor (pain).
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mnemonic: IMAGINE YOU TRIPPED ONTO LAVA (TRP), WOULDNT THAT SHIT HURT?
87
what are alpha-beta fibers
"thick, lots of myelin. supah fast nerve conduction
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88
what are alpha-delta fibers
"smaller than alpha-beta, less myelin
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89
what are c fibers
"small, unmyelinated - lingering
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90
what is the collection of nerves, sitting above the cribiform plate, that allows olfaction?
"olfactury bulb, projected down into olfactory epilthelium with receptors
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91
what are the 5 main tastes?
"sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami(glutamate)
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92
what is the labelled line model of gustatation?
"Each taste bud receptor has 5 axons, all which send separate taste information to different parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex. Remain separate to the brain. And they all synapse on diff parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex..
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93
sour and salty molecules rely on __
ion channels
94
bitter, sweet, and umami rely on ___
GPCR
95
what is conciousness?
awareness of self and environment
ranges from alertness to sleep
96
what waves are alertness associated with?
"beta waves
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12-30Hz
Busy waves
97
"what waves are ""daydreaming""/relaxed state associated with?"
"alpha waves
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8-13 Hz
Aloof waves (slowing down)
98
what waves are drowsiness associated with?
stage 1 - theta waves
99
N1 stage of sleep is dominated by
"Theta waves, hypnagonic hallucinations (Ex. Hearing doorbell, seeing flash of light), tetris effect (Ex. if playing tetris you may see blocks, if on boat you may feel rocking), hypnic jerks
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100
N2 stage of sleep
"deeper than N1, precedes N3, see lots of theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes
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101
what is a sleep spindle?
"burst of brain activity thought to suppress certain perceptions![]()
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102
what is the N3 stage of sleep?
"slow wave sleep, mostly composed of delta waves, also encodes declarative/explicit memory
SLEEP WALKING/TALKING
3 is FOR TREE - A WALKING TALKING TREE - DONT YOU FORGET THIS ONE
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103
what is freud's theory of dreams?
"
Dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted.
Little scientific support.
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104
what is the activation synthesis hypothesis of dreams?
"frontal cortex tries to make sense of random impulses from brain stem firing during REM sleep
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105
sleep deprivation can lead to
"obesity, depression, mood disorders, poor memory
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106
sleepwalking mostly occurs during __ stage of sleep
N3
107
breathing related disorders can take 3 forms:
"obstruction related, brain related, hypoventilation
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108
what is hypnosis?
induced altered state of conciousness. more susceptible to power of suggestion
can create false memories - memories that incorporate hypnotizers expectations even when not intended
109
what is meditation?
self induced altered state
increased alpha and theta waves
regular practitioners have greater ability to control attention
110
what does a depressant do and what are the three catergories?
-suppresses CNS
-lowers HR and BP
-Vasodilate at low-moderate concentrate and vasoconstrict at high
-alcohol, barbiturates, benzos
111
what does a stimulant do and what are some examples?
-stimulates CNS
-increase HR and BP
-vasoconstrict
-nicotine, caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA
-similar effect to stress
112
what does a hallucinogen do?
causes altered perception, pupil dilation, feeling of connectedness and mood swings
113
what is an opioid?
synthetic derivative of poppy seed, decrease CNS function but also act as analgesic (reduces perception of pain), vasodilator
114
cannabis/marijuana/weed has characteristics of
stimulants, hallucinogens, and depressants
115
opiates act on ___ receptors
endorphin
116
depressants act on ___ receptors
GABA
117
what is nicotine's effect on the body?
increase BP/HR, can disrupt sleep and suppress appetite, acetylcholine receptor agonist (because CNS stimulant)
118
what is the effect of cocaine?
massive increase in dopamine (blocks reuptake), serotonin, and norepinephrine. causes crash afterward
119
what do amphetamines do?
trigger release of dopamine, and block its reuptake
120
Ecstasy/ Molly/ MDMA
synthetic hallucinogen, also has stimulant properties. increases dopamine and euphoria. increases HR and body temp
can damage serotonin receptors
121
what neurotransmitter does LSD interfere with?
"serotonin (5-HT2 receptor family)"
122
what causes a crash/OD?
"when you take a typical drug with same conditions every time, body starts preemptively preparing for it.
If you don't get the drug, your body already prepared for the high, so you crash
If you take the drug in a new situation, your body doesn't prepare so your typical dose can become lethal
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""dont get the drugs after body has accomodated""
123
a faster route of entry means...
higher risk of addiction/dependence
124
dopamine is produced in the_____ region of the brain and released to the ____, ____, ____, and ____
"ventral tegmental, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus
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125
what is the role of the amygdala in reward pathway?
"emotional control. ex. This cake is delicious, I love this cake. I am feeling so happy right now."
126
what is the role of the nucleus accumbens in the reward pathway?
"motor function
""Its function is to transfer relevant motivational information to the motor cells in order to obtain a certain reward or satisfaction""
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ex. says let’s move hand to take another bite.
127
what is the role of the prefrontal cortex in the reward pathway?
"ex. puts attention to the cake."
128
what is the role of the hippocampus in the reward pathway?
"memory"
ex. Where am I at? Where am I eating this cake? Who am I with? Let’s remember things about this experience
129
what happens to levels of dopamine and serotonin when the reward pathway is activated?
dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down
130
what is serotonin involved in?
feelings of satiation
131
what is tolerance?
"brain gets used to drug stimulus, so it requires more of the drug to achieve same effect or just to feel ""normal""
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132
what are the telltale signs of a substance use disorder?
using higher dose, failing to meet (life) obligations, withdrawal,
133
what does methadone do?
activates opiate receptors but much more slowly and dampens the high. (treatment for opioid abuse)
134
how does cognitive behavioral therapy helps addicts?
addresses both cognitive thought processes (working toward more positive thought patterns) and helps identify behaviors to prevent relapse
135
what is motivational interviewing?
"working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change
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136
what is divided attention?
when doing more than one thing your brain quickly switches between things instead of multitasking
137
what is selective attention?
"""flashlight beam"", only focusing on one thing at a time"
138
what is an exogenuous cue?
"we dont have to tell ourselves to notice it. like a bright color or loud noise
(bottom-up processing)
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139
what is an endogenous cue?
require internal/background knowledge to understand the cue
cognitive aspect it attached to endogenous (top down processing)
example: cocktail party effect
140
what is inattentional blindness?
"when we fail to notice something in our view because our attention is focused elsewhere
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141
what is change blindness?
"failure to notice a change in an environment due to selective attention
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142
what does broadbent's theory state?
"sensory register-->selective filter-->perceptual process(I recognize that voice as my friends)-->conscious (deciding how to respond)
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problem? if you selectively filter everything then you wouldn't be able to hear your name in a crowded room.
143
What does Deutch & Deutch’s Theory state?
"Sensory register--> perceptual process->selective filter-->conscious
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states that you do register and assign meaning to shit but that your selective filter decides what to send to your conscious
problem? too much energy required to assign meaning to everything
144
what is Treisman's theory?
"instead of the selective filter we have an attenuator that weakens but doesn't eliminate something from the unattended ear.
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Sensory register-->attenuator-->perceptual process-->conscious
145
what is priming?
exposure to one stimulus can alter our perception of another or subsequent stimulus (due to implicit memory)
146
what is the resource model of attention?
"states that attention is a limited resource and that we suck ass at multi-tasking
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147
what are the 3 things that affect our ability to multitask?
"task similarity (more similar is more difficult), task difficulty, practice(prior experience)
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148
what does the information processing model postulate? Bottom up or top down?
input-->process-->output
Our senses are like computer: input (keyboard or sensory organs)->process (CPU or working memory)-> storage (hard drive or long term memory) -> output
bottom-up - why? because it is STIMULUS DRIVEN
149
what is sensory memory?
"like the sensory register. composed of iconic and echoic. iconic is what you see, lasts a few seconds.
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echoic is what you hear, lasting 3-4 seconds
150
what is working memory? What is it used for ?
"AKA short term memory. consists of what you are thinking of in the exact moment. 7 units of information (+or- 2) available.
Helps with reasoning and comprehension. A breakdown prevents brain from properly processing and encoding info which could lead one to reach incorrect conclusions and remember things incorrectly.
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151
what is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
"part of working memory involving processing visual and spatial info
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152
what is the phonological loop?
"verbal info being processed (any words or numbers in iconic or echoic memory) (think: repeating something to yourself again to remember it)
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153
what does the central executive do?
"coordinates the visuo-spatial, phonological loops, and episodic buffer to assist in coding long term memory
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154
what is the episodic buffer?
"theorized to integrate the other functions, known as the phonological loop (information heard) and visio-spatial sketchpad (information seen) with a sense of time, so that things occur in a continuing sequence, like a story from a book or movie.
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155
what is long term memory?
composed of explicit and implicit memories, theoretically unlimited
156
what is explicit memory?
"aka declarative
facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe
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157
what is implicit memory and the three types?
"unconscious - priming, habits, conditioning (knowing how to ride a bike)
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158
what is episodic memory?
its a part of explicit memory, specifically referring to birthdays/holidays and shit
159
riding a bicycle is a form of ____ memory
procedural
160
what is encoding?
processing info and transferring it into long-term memory
161
what is rote rehearsal?
saying the same shit again and again, is the least effective encoding technique
162
what is chunking?
grouping pieces of info together to improve encoding
163
what is the pegword system?
"verbal ""anchor"" to a word or piece of info.
1 is a gun
2 is a shoe
3 is a tree
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164
what is the method of loci?
"useful for encoding things that need to be memorized in order
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165
what is self referencing?
relating new info to yourself to help encoding
166
what is spacing?
spacing out study sessions instead of cramming
167
what is retrieval?
"trying to bring back a memory from long term memory into working memory
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168
what are the things that can affect retrieval?
"-priming (– prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness. Ex. hearing a story about apple and asked to name word starting with A.)
-context (the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the information) is
helpful)
-state-dependant (your state at the moment you encode. When you are in a certain
mood when you encode you can then remember it when you are in the same mood)
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169
what is free recall?
"recall without any cue
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170
what is the serial position effect effect?
"also known as primacy/recency effects, remember things at beginning and end of list better
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171
what is cued recall?
"recall that follows a ""cue"" of some sort
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172
what is source monitoring?
"keeping track of where a piece of information came from
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173
what is a flashbulb memory?
"very vivid/strong memory created in moment of high emotion
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174
what is long term potentiation?
"increase in synaptic plasticity/strength of synapse (connections between nuerons stengthen). key component of learning.
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175
what is decay? psychologist associated with research on forgetting?
"when a memory is unable to be retrieved. may still exist
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176
what is retroactive interference?
"new learning impairs old information/memory.
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177
what is proactive interference?
"something from prior memory affects new learning
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E.g. writing down the old year after Jan 1
178
what remains stable as people age?
"implicit memory and recognition abilities
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179
what abilities decline as people age?
"free and cued recall, forming episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention, prospective memory (remembering to do things in future)
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180
what skills improve as we age?
"semantic memory, emotional reasoning, crystallized IQ
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181
what is crystallized IQ/intelligence?
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the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It does not equate to memory, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory
182
what is the main suspected cause of alzheimer's
"buildup of amyloid plaques in brain
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183
what is korsakoff's syndrome and two causes?
"similar to AD, causes severe memory deficits, confabulation (mmaking up stories to fill memory gaps) however NOT progressive (treatment can make you better).
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main cause is malnutrition/lack of thiamine or vitamin B1. common in alcoholics.
184
what is wernicke's encephalopathy?
"precursor to Korsakoff's syndrome, left untreated it will progress to Korsakoff's. Symptoms are poor balance, abnormal eye movements,
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mild confusion, and/or memory loss
185
what is retrograde amnesia?
inability to recall previously encoded information
186
what is anterograde amnesia?
inability to encode new memories
187
what is a semantic model?
"theoretical model of memory encoding in brain. consists of related ""nodes""
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188
what is spreading activation?
"one cue/memory stimulates retrieval of other related memories
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189
object permanence appears in
sensorimotor stage
190
1st stage piaget
"![]()
"
-0-2 years
-sensorimotor
-Important aspects: development of object permanence and of stranger anxiety
191
2nd stage piaget and age range
"2-6 years old![]()
"
preoperational
Important aspects: Engage in pretend play, egocentric (don't understand other people have different point of view)
192
3rd stage piaget and age range
"7-11 years![]()
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"
concrete operational
Important aspects: develop conservation, empathy, math skills
193
4th stage piaget and age range
"11+
formal operational
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"
Important aspects: – reason abstract
consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning. At this point children
are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime
194
a child that recognizes conservation of matter (the water glass test) is in what stage of development?
concrete operational
195
at what stage do children begin to engage in abstract thought and moral reasoning?
formal operational
196
what is a schema?
a mental model/framework for how we view the world
197
what is assimilation?
"trying to fit things into an existing schema (ss=same schema)
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"
198
what is accomodation?
"formulating a new schema to interpret new shit, or modifying existing schema
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"
199
what is a well defined problem?
"problem with a clear start and end point
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"
200
what is an ill defined problem?
"has more ambiguous starting and ending point
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"
201
what is a heuristic?
a mental shortcut to find solution faster than trial&error or algorithmic
(using your birthday to guess a password)
202
what is trial and error?
"repeatedly trying all possible combinations to solve something
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"
203
what is algorithmic problem solving?
"solving problems using a set step by step method
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"
204
what is means-end analysis?
a heuristic where you break a large problem down into smaller problems and attack the one that creates the greatest difference between your current state and desired state
ex: planning trip to another country - biggest problem - book a plane ticket to a new country
205
what is intuition?
relying on instinct (high chance of error)
206
what is fixation?
getting stuck with the wrong approach to solving a problem
207
what is a type 1 error?
"false positive
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"
208
what is a type II error?
"false negative
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"
209
what is the availability heuristic?
"using examples that come to mind (shark attacks vs fireworks example) Doesn't usually work since our easily memorable experiences don't usually match the real state of the world
ACTUAL MEMORIES
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"
210
what is the representativeness heuristic?
"when you look for a representative prototype and use that to make decisions/inferences (Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student
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"
she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought
discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank
teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they
don’t know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a
feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist).
211
what is a conjunction fallacy?
"
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"
People tend to think the probability of 2 events
occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone (ex. Linda being a
bank teller and feminist is greater than just being a bank teller. However
statistically speaking there are more bank tellers than feminist bank tellers so it’s
more likely she is just a bank teller than a feminist + bank teller, which your
instincts might be telling you)
212
what is belief perserverance?
"ignoring facts that challenge your beliefs, or go against what you believe
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"
213
what is confirmation bias?
"actively seeking out only things that confirm what you believe or only having confirmatory things available to you
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"
214
spearman's intelligence theory postulates
"there is one underlying ""g factor"" that determines how intelligent people are at all tasks. person who scores high in one area will score high in another. Backed by research
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"
215
what is analytical intelligence?
academic ability to solve well defined problems
ability to take apart problems and see solutions not often seen (this is what IQ measures)
216
what is creative intelligence?
ability to adapt to new situations and generate new novel ideas to solve new problems
217
what is practical intelligence?
"""street smarts""
Ability to apply creative and analytical intelligence skills to everyday situations
"
218
what is fluid intelligence?
"ability to reason quickly and abstractly ""think on ones feet""
the ability to analyze novel problems (using deductive and inductive reasoning), identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these using logic
"
219
what is crystallized intelligence?
ability to use acquired skills/knowledge over the years (includes reading comprehension)
220
who invented the theory of primary mental abilities and what does it state?
"L.L Thurnstone-there are 7 factors to intelligence (word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory)
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"
221
what does the theory of multiple intelligences state and who invented it?
"Howard Gardner-7-9 very different types of intelligence that don't affect one another (logical-mathematical intelligence, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual,
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"
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical. Later 2 added: naturalist, and existential intelligence)
222
what does the triarchic theory of intelligence state and who invented it?
"Robert Sternberg-there are 3 independent intelligences that are based on real world success
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"
(analytical, creative, and practical)
""3 sides of same coin"", inclusive of all other theories
223
language is mostly localized to the __ hemisphere
left
224
what is aphasia?
any disorder involving language
225
what is broca's aphasia?
"""broken speech"", trouble speaking, halting/jarring speech but you can understand what people are saying
NON-FLUENT APHASIA (THEY CANT TALK FOR SHIT)
"
PICTURE BARACK OBAMA - GOOD AT SPEECHES
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226
what is Wernicke's aphasia?
"""fluent aphasia"", nothing the person says makes logical sense and you have trouble understanding. receptive aphasia
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"
(FLUENT APHASIA - THEY CAN TALK)
227
what is global aphasia?
wernicke's and broca's aphasia put together
228
what connects Wernicke's and Broca's area?
the arcuate fasciculus
229
what is conduction aphasia?
"when the arcuate fasciculus(connection between Wernicke's and Broca's) is broken, cannot connect the two things. difficult to repeat things that are said to you
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"
230
what is agraphia?
inability to write
231
what is anomia?
inability to name things
232
what does the linguistic universalism theory state?
"thought determines language completely.
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"
Ex: New Guinea only have 2 words for color because they only think about dark and light. If they had other thoughts, they would develop more words for color
233
what does Piaget think about language development?
"when children learn to think in a certain way they develop language to explain those thoughts
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"
Ex: When develop object permanence, create words like hide or hidden or away
234
what is Vygotsky's theory of language development?
"
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"
language and thought are both independent, but converge through
development. Eventually learn to use them at same time via socialization -
Believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who
already knew the language
235
what is the weak hypothesis of linguistic determinism?
"aka relativism-language influences thought. makes it easier for us to think in ways our language is structured
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"
Ex: language reads left to right so you draw something left to right
236
what is the strong hypothesis of linguistic determinism? ( and other name)
"aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis-language determines thought COMPLETELY.
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"
Ex: tribe of ppl who don't have grammar for past tense dont think about time the same way we do
237
what does the nativist theory of language development state and who is associated with it?
"babies have ""language acquisition device"" that is most active during the ""critical period"" up until 8 years old. associated with Noam Chomsky
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"
238
what does the learning/behaviorist theory of language acquisition state and who is associated with it
"babies learn language through operant conditioning from parents - BF skinner
ex. Child learns to say “mama” because every time
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"
they say that, mom reinforces child
239
what does the interactionist/social interactionist theory of language acquisition state and who is associated with it?
"associated with Vygotsky. states that childrens desire to communicate with others, such as adults in their life, leads them to develop language
Biological and social factors have to interact for children to learn language
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"
240
what are the basic structures that comprise the limbic system?
"hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, PFC
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"
Ex: hippo(campus) wearing a HAT
241
what is the function of the thalamus?
sensory relay station. smell is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus
242
what is the function of the amygdala?
negative emotions, fear, stress anxiety, aggression.
stimulating it produces above and destroying one gives mellowing affect
243
what is kluver-bucy syndrome?
"destruction of the amygdala results in decreased inhibition, hyperorality, hypersexuality
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"
244
what is the function of the hippocampus?
converts short term memory into long term memory.
245
what is the function of the hypothalamus
control of autonomic nervous system and basic drives (food thirst sleep sex). Also controls pituitary gland
246
positive emotions are associated with the __ side of the brain and negative emotions are associated with the __ side
"left
"
right
247
what is the function of the prefrontal cortex?
"what makes us ""human"". higher level thinking, control over actions/emotions"
248
what is the sympathetic nervous system?
"""fight or flight""
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"
pupils dilate, increase HR, Respiration Rate, glucose level, adrenaline (epinephrine)
decrease digestion/salivation
249
what is the parasympathetic nervous system?
"""rest and digest"".
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"
pupils CONSTRICT, increase salivation, glucose STORAGE, digestion
decrease HR, RR, adrenaline
250
what are the cognitive aspects of emotion?
how you are perceiving/thinking about the situation
251
what is the behavioral aspect of emotion?
body language/facial expressions
252
what are the 7 universal emotions and who came up with them?
"
happy, sad, surprised, fear, anger, disgust, New: contempt
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"
EEEEEEEKman
Paul Ekman
253
what is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
"Event-->Physiologic Response-->Interpretation-->Emotion
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"
Interpreting the physiological signs resulting from an event
Ex2: A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. The man’s heart
beat increases, he starts sweating, and he interprets these physiological
changes as the emotion fear.
MNEMONIC: JAMES BOND - he's all about action - when an event happens - our body has ACTION happen first (physiological response) - then we interpret
254
what is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
"Event-->Physiologic Response+Emotion
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"
Emotion+Physiologic response happens at same time
Ex: holding your cat (event) causes your heart rate (physiological
response) to increase and feel joy (emotion) at the same time.
mnemonic: picture a bad cannon splitting a cannonball into two (simultaneous)
255
What is the Schacter-Singer theory of emotion?
"
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"
Event-> PR + Identify reason for the situation
(PR) (consciously)-> Emotion
Ex: Holding your cat (event)-> Physiological response of increase HR/or
changes in NT level-> label the situation and identify reason for
physiological response and event (This is really nice, I like holding my cat,
this makes me happy)-> emotion (Happy)
Requires identifying reason for response
imagine a singer - doesn't know their voice is good - when she finished everyone is clapping for her. event first, which leads to a physiological arousal (clapping), and then she interpets the clapping and realizes that shes a good singer (labeling) then experiences the emotion
256
what is the Lazarus theory of emotion? and other name
"Event-->label event(as good/bad)-->emotion+physiologic response
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"
Requires labeling of event before experiencing emotion and physiologic response at same time
Ex. Event (holding cat)-> labeling situation as good->emotion (joy) + physiological response.
Lazarus - Labeling
AKA cognitive appraisal theory
257
what is stress?
"process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats/challenges.
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"
258
what is a stressor?
"event that is threatening/challenging
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"
259
what is a stress reaction?
"physical/emotional response to a stressor
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"
260
what is the appraisal theory of stress and who invented it?
"
Richard Lazarus- stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events. Appraisal. There are two stages to the cognitive stages of stress – the primary
appraisal and the secondary appraisal.
"
261
what is the primary appraisal of stress?
"Initial assessment of stressor. Can be irrelevant, benign/helpful, or negative. If negative move to secondary appraisal. Nothing to do with intensity of it, just whether its negative or not
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"
262
what is the secondary appraisal of stress?
evaluation of your ability to cope with the situation. Determine intensity and risk of sressor. Based on Harm, threat, and challenge of stressor
263
what are the 4 major categories of stressors?
"(1) significant life changes - college, kids, married
(2) catastrophic events - war, tornadoes
(3) daily hassles(most harmful)
(4) ambient stressors (pollution, noise, crowding)
"
264
what is the endocrine response to stress?
"adrenal medulla releases catecholamines (norepi/epi), adrenal cortex releases cortisol (steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system)
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"
265
what is the tend and befriend response?
"oxytocin, respond to stress using support system
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"
266
what are the 3 stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome and by who?
"1) Alarm phase (stress rxn kicks in)
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"
2) Resistance (fleeing, huddling,cortisol high, BP and RR high)
3) Exhaustion (resources depleted, tired, dampered immune system)
Hans Selye
LOOK AT GRAPH as resistance to strss
267
what is learned helplessness?
learn from having control taken from you that you have no control so you lose ability to identify and use coping mechanisms
268
what are some coping mechanisms for stress?
perceived control (low socioeconomic status)
optimism
social support
269
the forebrain develops into
"cerebrum
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"
270
the midbrain develops into
"midbrain
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"
271
the hindbrain develops into
pons/medulla/cerebellum
272
basic neural function includes
motor, sensory, automatic(reflexes)
273
higher level neural function includes
cognition, consciousness, emotion
274
what is a lower motor neuron(LMN?)
efferent PNS neuron that synapses on motor unit for skeletal muscle contraction to form a neuromuscular junction
275
what is atrophy?
"loss of muscle volume (lower motor neuron sign)
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"
276
what is a fasciculation?
"involuntary ""twitch"" of (lower motor neuron sign)
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"
277
what is hypotonia?
"
decrease in tone of skeletal muscle – how much muscle is
contracted when person is relaxed (lower motor neuron sign)
"
278
what is hyporeflexia?
decreased reflexive response to stimulation (lower motor neuron sign)
279
what are the components of the muscle stretch reflex?
"afferent (stimulus), efferent (response).
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"
causes a muscle to contact after it’s stretched, as a protective response
Somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in
spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord, which sends axon out back to
same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract –
lower motor neurons (efferent)
knee jerk:
280
neurons in the autonomic nervous system control what? are they afferent or efferent neurons?
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells
efferent neurons
281
what is grey matter?
mostly neural soma
282
what is white matter?
mostly myelinated axons
283
where is grey matter located in the spinal cord?
inside. white is on outside
284
where is grey matter located in the brain?
on the outside, white is on inside
285
what do upper motor neurons do?
"control lower motor neurons
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"
286
where are upper motor neurons located?
the cerebral cortex, synapse in spinal cord
287
what is the corticospinal tract?
"when UMN from cerebral cortex synapses in spinal cord
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"
288
what is the corticobulbar tract?
when UMN from cerebral cortex synapses in brainstem
289
what are the upper motor neuron signs?
"(1) hyperreflexia (increases in muscle stretch reflex, bigger reflexes)
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"
(2) clonus (rhythmic contractions of muscles-repeated reflexes)
(3) hypertonia (– increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch)
(4) extensor plantar response (babinski!!)
290
somatosensory tracts synapse on the (same side/opposite side) in the brain
opposite side
291
what are the function of the bumps/grooves in the cerebral cortex?(gyri/sulci)
increase surface area
292
what is the function of the 3 parts of the frontal lobe?
"prefrontal cortex (executive function, supervise/direct other areas of brain)
motor cortex (voluntary body movement)
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"
Broca's area (speech production)
293
what are the 3 functions of the parietal lobe?
"somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain)
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"
spacial manipulation (orient in 3D)
Proprioception
294
what is the function of the occipital lobe?
"vision, AKA ""striate"" cortex"
295
what are four functions of the temporal lobe?
hearing- Wernicke's area (primary auditory cortex)
memory- hippo
emotion- amygdala
Learning as well
296
what is contralateral control?
left side of brain controls right side of body & vice versa (applies to all senses but smell and taste)
297
what is the brainstem composed of and what is its function?
"medulla, pons, midbrain, reticular formation. basic functions like HR and RR. connects cerebellum to cerebral cortex and spinal cord
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"
298
what is the function of the cerebellum?
"fine motor control/voluntary movement. proprioception
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"
The cerebellum is critical for motor learning, which occurs whenever an organism repeatedly practices a motor task, such as swimming, driving, or speaking. Motor learning is the foundation for procedural memory, the acquisition of which relies heavily on the cerebellum. Because the mice were tested in the Morris Water Maze each day for one week, the cerebellum would be involved in motor learning of this skill.
The cerebellum is also responsible for integrating information from the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems to maintain balance and posture, coordinate complex movements requiring multiple muscles, and control precision of fine motor movements. The cerebellum also receives feedback from the body regarding the position of body parts in space and relative to each other (proprioception)
FRONTAL LOBE IS VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT NOT MOTOR COORDINATION YOU IDIOT
299
what is the function of the pons?
"regulates sleep/waking and relaxing
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"
300
what is the function of the reticular formation?
"motivation and alertness. filters info and sends important shit to the thalamus. sleep wake cycle/awareness
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"
(think: 'tickled')
301
what is the function of the medulla?
"autonomic activity of heart and lungs
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"
302
what controls the pituitary gland?
the hypothalamus
303
what is the function of glutamate?
"excitatory neurotransmitter, increased cortical arousal, reticular activating system has diffuse projection of glutamate ![]()
"
Necessary for consciousness
304
what are GABA and glycine?
inhibitory neurotransmitters. GABA is CNS and glycine is PNS. GABA in brain, glycine, in spine
305
what is acetylcholine?
neurotransmitter released in frontal lobe
released for LMNs and the autonomic nervous system. also involved in CNS
306
where does histamine in the brain travel?
hypothalamus--> cerebral cortex
307
what is autocrine signaling?
cell signals itself
308
what is paracrine signaling?
cell signals nearby cell
309
what is the function of the thyroid?
regulation of metabolism
310
what is the function of the parathyroid?
regulation of calcium levels
311
the adrenal glands are stimulated by
ACTH(adreno cortico tropic hormone)
312
What organ isn't tied to the pituitary
pancreas
313
what stimulates the gonads?
FSH/LH
314
what is the acrosome?
"portion of sperm containing enzymes to digest zona pellucida
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"
315
what is the zona pellucida?
"thick outer covering of human egg cell. penetrated by sperm acrosome
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"
316
what are the basic steps of fertilization?
"1) sperm binds
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"
2) acrosome reaction (digest zona pellucida)
3) cortical reaction (binding of 2 cell membranes, block to polyspermy)
4) fertilization
317
what is a morula?
"tight collection of 32 cells, beginning of differentiation
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"
318
what is the defining feature of a blastocyst?
a blastocoel (cavity)
319
what is the result of gastrulation?
3 embyronic germ layers, ecto-, endo-, and meso-
320
what happens during neurulation?
"notochord stimulates ectoderm to develop into neural tube
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"
notorchord induces change above on cells above in the ectoderm (cells become thicker) called the neural plate
neural plate cells begin to dive into mesoderm. ring structure/tue forms and become known as a neural tube.
321
the GI tract (esophagus, small testine), large intestine), lungs, liver, and pancreas all develop from the
"endoderm
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"
322
cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, bone, kidney, bladder, gonads are derived from
"mesoderm
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"
323
the nervous system, skin, hair, glands derive from what germ layer?
"ectoderm
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"
324
fertilization occurs at week
2
325
fetal development is at __ weeks relative to day 1 of cycle
10
8 weeks after fertilization
326
full term is
37-42 weeks
327
gross motor skills involve __ muscles
larger
328
fine motor skills involve
smaller muscles
329
development tends to move from __ to __
head to toe
330
what are traits? Acquired or inherited?
distinguishing qualities/characters. can be acquired or inherited
331
what is temperament?
"innate, genetically influenced aspect of ""personality""
"
hardwired, PRE-environment
characteristic emotional reactivity,
intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Persistent as person ages
332
what is a monozygotic twin?
"from same egg(identical)
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"
333
what is a dizygotic twin?
"from different eggs. (fraternal)
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"
334
fraternal twins share __% of their genetic code
50
335
what is an adoption study?
when an adopted child is compared to their biological family and adopted family
336
what would you expect to see if dizygotic has a strong genetic component?
identical twins =/= fraternal twins
identical twins raised together=twins raised apart
adoptive children=biological family
why different between twin types? identical share 100%, while fraternal only share 50%
337
what would you expect to see if a dizygotic has a strong environmental component?
identical twins=fraternal twins
identical twins raised apart=/=twins raised together
adopted child=adopted family and NOT biological family
why the same between both twin types?
because they share the same environment
338
what is heritablity?
"
Heritability does not pertain to an individual, but rather to how two individuals differ; for example, the heritability of intelligence is 50%. This does not mean that genes are responsible for 50% of your intelligence, but rather is responsible for 50% of the difference between your intelligence and someone else’s.
Heritability is specific to the population studied and would likely be different in different environments
Ex. . Four boys with a 100% controlled environments, yet IQ still is different between the boys. Difference couldn’t be attributed to environment, so we’d say their IQ differences were 100% heritable because environment was 100%
same
"
339
what is epigenetics?
"changes in gene expression due to modification of DNA at the molecular level. this includes methylation, acetylation, etc.
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"
340
the ____ interacts with genes to influence behavior
"environment
"
Ex. Attractive baby and hideous baby. As a result, attractive baby receives more
attention and is more sociable and well adjusted. But say both have genes that
predispose for depression, that are triggered/activated by environment
(stressors). Beautiful baby’s genes are not activated because it has reduced
transmitters, while ugly baby’s genes are making proteins all the time since his
life is tougher. Both DNA/genes play a role in genetic disposition but also
environments plays a role
341
what is the function of behavior?
to maintain homeostasis (internal/external)
342
what is an innate behavior and what are the three types
"genetically programed, present at birth
Reflex- sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking
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"
Orientation behaviors- regulating specially in our environments (Ex. Insects and light. Insects have
positive taxis towards light (phototaxis)
fixed action pattern(FAP)- sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. more complicated than reflex. Ex. praying mantis strike response to seeing prey
343
what is learned behavior?
behavior learned from environment
344
what is complex behavior?
"combination of innate and learned behavior
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"
ex: ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning becomes more efficient in ability to fly
345
what is positive feedback?
increase product. one product stimulates production of another product
346
what is negative feedback?
decrease in product
347
what is the evolutionary (instinct) approach to motivation? and creater
From an evolutionary point of view, behaviors are not made consciously: they are instinctual, and based on what is most advantageous in terms of passing one’s genes on to the next generation. motivated to do just whats needed to survive (like a baby). In line with Darwin
Controversial because it negects the role learning has on behavior
348
what is drive reduction theory? (4 aspects according to kaplan)
"a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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"
349
what is optimum arousal theory?
"people do things to reach a peak state of arousal or natural high
ex. why we go to amusement parks
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"
350
what is extrinsic motivation?
motivation by external factors or rewards (losing weight, getting money)
351
what is intrinsic motivation
motivation by internal factors/ desires
352
what are the basic needs in maslow's hierarchy of needs?
bottom: physiological (food, thirst, rest, warmth)
level 2: safety (safe environment/home)
353
what is the third level of maslow's hierarchy of needs?
love(need for acceptance/intimacy)
354
what is the 4th level of maslow's hierarchy of needs?
self esteem (feeling self confident in your achievements and shit)
355
Final level of maslows hierarchy of needs
"Self- actualization. its when you reach your full goddamn potential
"
356
what is incentive theory
"basically describes motivation in terms of positive reinforcement. ppl will be more likely to do something if immediately (immediate helps but not required) given a reward (tangible or intangible)"
357
what is the sexual response cycle?
"
phases during banging
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"
Master & Johnson (MJ loved sex) studied physiological steps in sexual activity from volunteers
1) excitement/arousal
2) flatline
3) orgasm
4)refractory period
358
what is an attitude?
"a learned tendency to evaluate something in a certain way
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"
359
what are the components of attitude
affective, behavioral, cognitive (ABCs)
360
what is the affective component of attitude
"how we feel about something
"
Ex: I am scared (an emotion) of spiders is an emotional attitude and
shapers our attitude about spiders
361
what is the behavioral component of attitude?
"how we act about or behave towards the thing"
Ex; I will avoid (action/behavior) spiders and scream (action/behavior) if I see one. Influence our attitude.
362
what is the cognitive aspect of attitude?
"how we think/believe about something
"
Ex: I believe spiders are dangerous (We have a belief they are dangerous) which forms our attitude.
363
what is the theory of planned behavior?
"we consider our intentions and the implications of our actions before acting
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"
Intentions are based on attitudes (I like studying), subjective norms (friends say studying makes me a loser), and perceived behavioral control ( an individual's perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior.)
364
what is the attitude to behavior process model?
"an event triggers our attitude-->that attitude+our prior knowledge determines our behavior
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"
Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his
relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. So when
he’s at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy because of his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is.
365
what is the prototype willingness model?
"behavior is a function of 6 things, prototyping/modeling is one of them
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"
past behavior
attitudes
subjective norms
intentions
willigness to engage
models/prototyping
366
what is the elaboration likelihood model for persuasion?
"
Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on
quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded
depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central!
Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal
persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor
himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!)
cognitive approach
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"
367
what is the foot in the door techinque?
"you are more likely to do something big when asked to do something smaller first
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"
368
what is the relation between role playing and attitude?
playing a new role can shape an attitude
369
what is effort justification?
people more likely to give something greater value if they put a lot of effort into it
370
what is cognitive dissonance and how do we respond?
"discomfort felt when we hold 2 or more conflicting ideals/cognitions
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"
371
what are the 4 things we do to alleviate cognitive dissonance?
"
modify our cognitions (ex. smoker might say, I really don’t smoke that much. (went from “I smoke” to “I really don’t smoke that much”)
Ex. : Smoker says “I smoke” (cognition 1) and now learns that “smoking leads to cancer” (cognition 2)
trivialize the importance of their cognition (smoker says evidence is weak that it causes cancer)
add more cognitions ( I exercise so much it doesn’t matter (cognition 3). You added another
cognition to deal with cognitive dissonance.)
deny the facts(other cognitions) (ex. Smoker might say, there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are
linked)
"
372
what is the situational approach to behavior?
behavior is determined by the situations we are placed in
373
what is attribution?
"inferring about the causes of events
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"
374
what is the basic point of psychoanalytic theory and who is it associated with?
Freud. personality shaped by childhood experiences and UNCONSCIOUS THOUGHTS/DESIRES, feelings, and past memories. deterministic
375
psychoanalytic theory states there are 2 instinctual drives pushing human behavior, what are they?
Libido and Death instict
376
what is libido?
natural enery source, fuels mild for motivation to survive, grow,have sex
377
what is the death instinct?
drives aggresive behaviors fueled by the unconscious wish to hurt yourself or others
378
what is projection?
"projecting your own feelings onto someone else
Projection involves attributing one's unacceptable thoughts and behaviors to others. If the individual were employing projection, she would ascribe her feelings to someone else, such as to her supervisor (eg, ""My supervisor is obviously attracted to me"")
calling the sidewalk stupid after tripping
"
379
what is regression?
when you start acting childish in problematic situations
380
what is sublimation?
a defense mechanism where unacceptable behaviors are transferred into acceptable behaviors
Ex. someone with anger issues turns to boxing
381
what are the 3 parts of the mind, as per Freud?
"id, ego, superego
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"
382
what is the Id?
"at the ""bottom of the iceberg"", is the unconscious thing demanding immediate gratification. "
383
what is the superego?
"its our moral conscience, and is found as part of the conscious and unconscious mind
"
The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and
tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection.
384
what is the ego?
part of unconscious and conscious. it mediates between the superego and the Id. seeks LONG TERM gratification. Who we identify with/ believe ourselves to be
385
what is Freudian slip?
"an example of mental conflict
"
Ex: Financially stressed patient says ""please don't give me an bills"" instead of pills because theyre stupid
386
what is the basic thrust of humanistic theory and psychologist associated?
"focuses on healthy personality development, humans are inherently good. self motivated to self actualize (innate drive to enhance one to full potential). emphasize free will. based on concious as opposed to psychoanalytic
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"
387
who are the 2 people associated with Humanistic theory?
Abraham Maslow(hierarchy of needs) and Carl Rogers.
both believed central feature of personality was self-concept - achieved when genuineness + acceptance are brought together
388
what did Carl Rogers theorize?
"stated that the qualities described by Maslow were developed early in life in a growth promoting climate.
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"
389
"what are the required elements of a ""growth promoting climate?"""
"growth nurtured when individual is ""genuine""
growth is nurtured through acceptance by others
"
390
what is the biological theory of personality?
important personality components are INHERITED by GENES
391
what does behaviorist theory state?
"personality result of learned behavior patterns based on environment. deterministic, meaning people start as blank slates and get molded by the environment
skinner was strict behaviorist
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"
392
what is trait theory?
personality traits describe overall personality and describe it as a pattern of behavior
doesnt try to explain personality
393
what is a trait?
stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave certain ways
394
what did Gordon Allport theorize?
"all of us have 3 categories of traits, cardinal, central, and secondary
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"
395
what are cardinal traits?
characteristics that direct most of a person's activity
396
what are central traits?
less dominant than cardinal traits such as honesty or shyness
397
what are secondary traits?
preferences or attitudes Ex: liking art or not eating meat
398
what did Raymond Cattell propose?
"we all have 16 essential personality traits
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"
399
what did Hans Eysenck propose with regard to trait theory?
"we all have ALL traits but express them to different degrees. also, 3 dimensions of personality (PEN model)
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"
(1) psychotisim - degree to which reality is distorted (we all don't ncessarily have psychoticism)
(2) extroversion - degree of sociability
(3) neuroticism - emotional stability
400
what is psychotisim?
the degree to which you distort reality. Measure of non conformity or social deviance (ex. recklessness, disregard for common sense, and inappropriate emotional expression)
401
what is extroversion?
degree of sociability
402
what is neuroticism?
emotional stability (anxiety, tension)
403
what is the 5 factor model of trait theory?
"states that there are 5 major categories of traits found in every person.
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"
Openness- - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical)
Conscientiousness- careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not
Extroversion- talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober
Agreeableness- kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly
Neuroticism- stable vs. tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs. insecure
OCEAN
404
what is social cognitive theory of personality and psychologist?
"
![]()
"
Bandura
personality can be observed through observtion and interaction
theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlike
behaviourism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important.
Cognition -> Environment -> Behavior (the order can change as well)
- Ex. Meg is interested in soccer (cognition), joins a soccer team (environment),
and spends time with soccer players (behavior). Cognition -> Environment ->
Behavior
- Or, she can spend a lot of time with soccer players (behavior), become
interested in it (cognition), and joins a soccer team (environment).
Behavior à Cognition à Environment
- Or, she hangs with soccer players (behavior), so she joins a soccer team
to hang out w/ them more (environment), and then after playing for a
while develop a real interest in soccer (cognition). This then reinforces
her hanging with the team. Behavior à Environment à Cognition.
""AM I Motivated?
Requires Attention, Memory, Imitation, and Motivation""
405
what is the deal with Albert Bandura and the bobo doll experiment?
"learning-performance distinction
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"
learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things
not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it
406
what are pathological defense mechanisms?
ones that distort reality
Ex. Denial
407
what is the denial defense mechanism?
denying that the event ever happened
(pathological liar) - pathological defense mechanism
408
what are immature defense mechanisms?
mnemonic - PP (sounds immature)
(1) projection - throw attributes to someone else - can lead to....
projective identification - person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them
(2) passive aggresion
409
what is passive aggression?
passively expressing your anger
410
what is Intellectualization?
"taking intellectual aspects and detaching the emotional aspects of the situation. seperating emotion from ideas ![]()
"
411
what is Rationalization?
"making yourself believe the bad thing was not your fault
justifying cheating because the course ""was impossible""
"
412
what is Repression
unconsciously pushing negative thoughts away
413
what is displacement?
"getting mad at an easier target
Displacement involves taking out one's unacceptable thoughts and behaviors on another person or object. If this individual were employing displacement, she might exhibit attraction toward a peer rather than her supervisor (eg, ""I feel attracted to my coworker"")
punching a pillow when mad
"
414
what are mature defense mechanisms?
humor - humor to be truthful and alleviate feelings but socially acceptable
sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy
suppression - conscious thought gets pushed to unconscious but CAN access thoughts at a later time
altruism - service of others - we fill fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction
415
what is Freud's pleasure principle?
as a child, you want immediate gratification. not willing to compromise (give me candy)
416
what is the reality principle?
when you are older/mature, have to sacrifice short term reward in favor of long term gratification
417
what is the Eros drive?
"aka Life drive: health, safety, sex
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"
418
what is the Thantos drive?
"AKA death drive: self destructive/harmful drive
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"
419
what is distress?
"negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for the body
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"
420
what is eustress?
"positive stress that motivates you
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"
421
what is neustress?
neutral type of stress. doesnt affect you really (like news of natural disaster in another country)
422
what is the biomedical approach to psychological disorders?
"considers ONLY biological factors
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"
Ex. Abnormalities of cell of the brain that might cause disorders or having
abnormal pattern of connections b/w cells of the brain
423
what is the biopsychosocial approach to disorders?
"considers biological factors AND psych/sociological factors
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"
424
what are neurodevelopmental disorders?
involve distress/disability due to abnormality during development
Ex: autism/retardation
425
what are neurocognitive disorders?
loss of cognitive brain function AFTER nervous system developing
categories
(1) delirium - reverisble episode of cognitive/higher brain problems - caused by drugs/abnormalities in blood/infections
(2) dementia - irreversible and progressive (caused by Alzheimer's or stroke)
426
what are sleep-wake disorders?
sleep related issues
Ex: insomnia/sleep apnea/sleep walking
427
what are Anxiety disorders?
abnormal worry/fear.
Ex: GAD, social anxiety/panic disorder
428
what are depressive disorders?
abnormally NEGATIVE mood. long term emotional state.
Ex: major depressive disorder
mood is a long term emotional state - not necessarily to events
mood becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others, ex. crying)
429
what are the bipolar and related disorders?
periods of negative mood WITH periods of abnormally positive mood called Mania
Ex: bipolar disorder
430
Schizophrenia spectrum and other Psychotic disorders are characterized by
involves psychosis...may involve....
(1) delusions - fixed false beliefs not explainable by experiences/cultures
(2) can have hallucinations.
(3) decreased emotional expression
(4) decreased social behavior
schiz has many of these while other psychosis disorders have some
431
what are the trauma/stress related disorders
occurs after stressful/traumatic event.
Ex: PTSD
432
what are the substance related and addictive disorders?
addiction to drugs or substances
Ex: Crack addict
433
what are personality disorders?
"group of disorders characterized by rigid, maladaptive traits
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"
434
What are the disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders?
behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive
435
What are obsessive compulsive disorders?
"involuntary thoughts, compulsions
Obsessions- thoughts that occur involuntarily, often unwelcome. Occur repeatedly
"
Compulsions- are activities that one must do and are often related to and obsession.
Ex: OCD (obsession with hands are dirty, compulsion to wash them repeatedly)
436
what are somatic symptom disorders
"Somatic symptom (somatoform) disorder involves a person having a significant focus on physical symptoms, such as pain, weakness or shortness of breath, that results in major distress and/or problems functioning. The individual has excessive thoughts, feelings and behaviors relating to the physical symptoms. The physical symptoms may or may not be associated with a diagnosed medical condition, but the person is experiencing symptoms and believes they are sick (that is, not faking the illness).
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"
Somatic symptom disorder (SSD) occurs when a person feels extreme anxiety about physical symptoms such as pain or fatigue. The person has intense thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to the symptoms that interfere with daily life.
A person with SSD is not faking his or her symptoms. The pain and other problems are real. They may be caused by a medical problem. Often, no physical cause can be found. But it's the extreme reaction and behaviors about the symptoms that are the main problem.
437
what are feeding and eating disorders
food abnormalities
Ex: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia
438
what are the elimination disorders?
"peeing or pooping at bad times
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"
439
what are dissociative disorders?
abnormalities of identiy or memory or awareness
ex: multiple personalities, forgetting past trauma
440
what are sexual dysfunctions?
abnormal sexual performance
441
what is gender dysphoria?
DISTRESS permeates as person identifies as different gender
442
what are paraphilic disorders?
recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors that are distressing or disabling and that involve inanimate objects, children or nonconsenting adults, or suffering or humiliation of oneself or the partner with the potential to cause harm.
443
schizophrenia results from a combination of
"genetics and environment
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"
444
what is the prodrome?
"period of time before schizophrenia becomes symptomatic. ""going downhill"""
445
what are positive symptoms of schizophrenia?
"hallucinations, delusions
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"
446
what are cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia?
"abnormalities of attention, organization, planning. Difficulties with concentration and memory and critical thinking.
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"
447
what are negative symptoms of Schizophrenia?
"Avoliton, blunted emotions, loss of enjoyment, lack of emotional expression, lack of interest/enthusiasm, inability to carry a conversation
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"
448
what are some physical abnormalities seen in schizophrenia pts?
"smaller cerebral cortex (frontal and temporal lobes), abnormal dopamine levels (increase), affected mesocorticolimbic pathway
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"
mesocorticolimbic pathway
449
what brain structures show abnormal activity in major depressive disorder pts? What is abnormal in blood?
"decreased activity in frontal lobe
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increased activity in limbic structure
abnormal blood concentrations of cortisol
*neuroplasticity appears abnormal in animals of major depressive disorder (cause or effect? who knows)
"
450
what is Generalized Anxiety Disorder?
"general state of tenseness and uneasyness greater than 6 months
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"
sometimes have diagnosis with depression (not part of it, but goes along with)
451
what is a panic disorder?
sudden panic attacks=intense fear and has physical symptoms
panic attacks are in response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress
452
what is a phobia?
irrational fear of specific objects or situations
FOCUSED anxiety
453
what is OCD?
"obsessive (unwanted repetitive thoughts)
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"
compulsive disorder (unwanted repetitive actions)
454
what is PTSD?
"lingering thoughts/nightmares after a traumatic past event. can be triggered.
A PTSD diagnosis requires evidence of several types of symptoms, including hyperarousal (eg, exaggerated startle response, insomnia); intrusive symptoms (eg, nightmares, flashbacks); avoiding reminders of the trauma; and negative thoughts and moods.
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"
Ex: war, rape
ACRONYM:
TRAUMA
455
what is dissociative identity disorder?
"2 or more identities in a single body.
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"
usually from people who have suffered child abuse or life stresses. extremely rare. some poeple think it isnt even legit
each personality is unaware of the other
conscious dissociates or separates from the painful memories, thoughts, or feelings
456
what is conversion disorder?
"a psychosomatic NEUROLOGICAL disorder (like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis)"
457
what is a factitious disorder?
"pt wants to be sick so he makes shit up to get Dx/Tx
sick role: not for money
Munchausen’s syndrome
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"
458
what are the 3 categories of personality Disorders?
"A(awkward), B(bewildered), C(concerned)
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"
459
what are the cluster A personality disorders?
"Paranoid - profound distrust and suspicion of others
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"
SchiZoid - DIZTANT = distant, emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion.
SchizoTypal - odd beliefs/magical Thinking
460
what is paranoid personality disorder?
profound distrust/suspicion of others
461
what is schizoid personality disorder?
emotionally detached and shows little emotion
Lack of interest (intentially uninvolved in society)
462
what is Schizotypal personality disorder?
odd beliefs/magical thinking
463
what are cluster B personality disorders?
(1) Antisocial - little or no regard for others (ANTIsociety) (commit crimes) commonsly confused with schizoid
(2) borderline - unstable/BORDERLINE relationships/emotions, variable self-image, compulsive
(3) histrionic - very attention seeking - displays emotions outwardly, wear bright clothes (H for Hollywood Actress)
(4) narcissistic - huge egos, need for admiration, praise, grandiose
464
what is antisocial personality disorder?
little or no regard for others. commit crimes and show no remorse
465
what is borderline personality disorder?
unstable relationships and emotion, variable self image/compulsive. Splitting - grouping people into all good or all bad
attention seeking and rapid mood swings
A distorted and unstable self-image
466
what is histrionic personality disorder?
very attention seeking. display large emotions/wear bright clothes
467
what is narcissistic personality disorder?
huge ego, need for admiration/praise
468
what is avoidant personality disorder?
inhibited. avoid putting themselves in situations where they can be criticized. Want to be with others but can't (unlike schizoid)
469
what is dependent personality disorder?
submissive and clingy
ex: dependent debby clins and is submissive to her husband Dan
470
what are the physiological signs of Alzheimer's Dz?
brain atrophy. neuron loss (nucleus basalis lost), plaques, tangles
starts in temporal lobe - memory
3 main abnormalities: loss of neurons, plaques (amyloid, because plaques are made of beta-amyloid), and tangles (neurofibrillary tangles, clumps of a protein tau)
471
what is the first brain structure thought to be lost in the progression of alzheimers, and what is this structure responsible for?
"nucleus basalis, important for cognitive function and AcH release
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"
472
what is the main physiological evidence of Parkinson's disease?
"
loss of substantia nigra, which is a darker tissue in the brainstem. Suggests on Dopaminergic neurons lost
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"
473
which neurons are lost in parkinson's disease?
dopaminergic neurons leading to loss of dopamine
474
what is lewy body Disease?
"![]()
"
less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction
and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex. Separate from Parkinson’s
475
what is bipolar 1 disorder?
"HAS manic episodes with (or without) major depressive disorder
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"
476
what is bipolar 2 disorder?
"has NEVER HAD manic episode, instead only peaks at ""hypomania"" + one major depressive disorder
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"
477
what is conformity?
"""peer pressure"". tendency to bring thoughts in line with majority"
478
what is informative influence?
look to group for guidance when you have no knowledge of the topic
479
what is normative influence?
"even though you have background knowledge, you conform to the group to avoid being a social outcast"
480
what is private conformity?
"change behaviors and opinions to align with group
"
Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the
situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a
shock color.
481
what is public conformity?
outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs
only outwardly agree with the group
482
what is group polarization?
"when opinion/decision of a group pushes to an extreme. this happens because all criticism is directed to dissenting/minority view and all praise is directed to shit that supports the majority opinion
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"
483
what is groupthink?
"everyone thinks/acts the same way to maintain cohesiveness![]()
"
people don't want to disagree with group leader. chain reaction (first person agrees, second doesnt want to be only one out)
484
what is obedience?
obey orders from a higher authority
(traffic laws, firefighter, mein fuhrer)
485
what is social anomie? (anomic conditions)
"breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community
"
Without attachment to society, people will experience
purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often
associated with anomie
486
what is compliance?
"when we do a behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid punishment
dont have to believe in it
"
487
what is identification?
when you dress/act a certain way to be like someone you look up to
will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual
488
what is internalization?
when a thought/idea/belief has been integrated into your own value/belief system
stronger than other types of conformity
ex: start going to the gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior
489
what is normatiave social influence?
if we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms
because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently
490
what is informational social influence?
when you defer to the judgement of people who you think have more knowledge of the topic than you
ex: move to a new place. ask people around you of places to eat
491
whats the deal with Solomon Asch's line experiments? (what is gestalt psychology)
"
showed that people would conform even though they knew they were right or because they doubted themselves
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"
gestalt psychology - believed
not possible to understand human behaviour by breaking down into parts, people must
be understood as whole
demonstrated informational and normative social influence
492
what is ecological validity?
does the experiment relate to the real world?
493
what is demand characteristics?
"
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"
describes how participants change behaviour to match
expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that’s what experimenter
wanted them to do. Unconscious
guess hypothesis and try to match it
494
whats the deal with Milgram's experiments?
"people shocked a confederate alot due to obedience to authority. demonstrated that everyone has a fundamental obedient side to them
people look at nazis as evil yet did shit things themselves, we all express fundamental attribution error
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"
495
what is the just world phenomenon?
the world is fair and people get what they deserve
496
what is the main point of the zimbardo/stanford prison experiment?
deindividuation (loss of self) and control over the prisoners.
the situational influence (situational attribution) took precedence over dispositional attribution (action due to internal characteristics)
the bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was wrong, tried to reduce mental distress - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it (changing cognition)
internalization - subjects internalized roles - incorporated roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviors
497
what are some factors that can influence conformity (8)
group size- 3-5 means you'll conform
unanimity- more people that agree means more likely conformation
group status- trust four doctors over four gardeners about health
group cohesion-connectedness to the group makes conformation more likely
observed behavior- if behavior is observed you conform
public response-if we think we'll be met with acceptance vs shunning
prior commitments-if we said something earlier that goes agaisnt group we are less likely to then conform
feelings of insecurity- insecurity means youll conform
498
what is the bystander effect?
people feel less responsibility to do shit or help others when in a large group
499
what is the diffusion of responsibiliy theory?
explains bystander effect. when in a group you feel less responsible for shit
500
what is deindividuation?
"individual more likely to act badly in a group because they ""blend in""
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"
