PSYCH 4410: Exam 3 Flashcards
How do we generate speech sounds?
respirations, phonation, articulation
respiration
air must be pushed out of the lungs, through the trachea, and up the larynx
phonation
the process through which vocal folds are made to vibrate when air moves by them
vocal folds
a pair of elastic tissues that vibrate to create your voice
controlling pitch with vocal folds
thickness of vocal folds
-thick = low pitch
-thin = high pitch
stiffness of vocal folds
-loose = low pitch
-tight = high pitch
articulation
the act or manner of producing a speech sound using the vocal tract
vocal tract
an airway above the larynx that is used as a filter to produce speech sounds
formant
a resonance in the vocal tract
phonemes
the basic unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in utterances in a given language (duck vs tuck)
how many phonemes does English have
about 40
phoneme awareness
distinguish phonemes, we are all born with it but lose certain phonemes with experience
3 variables of consonant sounds produced during speech
place of articulation, manner of articulation, voicing
place of articulation
what part of your vocal tract are you using to obstruct airflow? e.g. closing your mouth or tongue behind teeth
manner of articulation
how much is airflow obstructed? e.g. total obstruction (b or d), partial obstruction (f or s), mouth obstruction but open nasal passage (m or n)
voicing
are you using your vocal folds to phonate? e.g. vibrating (m or z), not vibrating (p or ch)
problems with thinking sound are little chunks
coarticulation and categorical perception
coarticulation
-speech sounds vary according to other speech sounds that precede and follow
-this is because successive speech sounds overlap and blend into each other
-the tongue must adapt to make a transition from the previous phoneme to the current phoneme
categorical perception
-the perception of different sensory stimuli as identical even though there is slight variation in the underlying physical stimuli
-dividing a continuous physical variable into a discrete perception
McGurk effect
when bah sounds like dah but the video is saying gah, hearing 3rd phoneme
what does the McGurk effect tell us?
-context is extremely important in speech perception
-visual image (context) potentially influences audition
-crossmodal perception
crossmodal perception
when one sensory modality affects perception in another sensory modality
what areas of the brain are involved in speech perception?
Broca’s and Wernicke’s
broca’s area
damage to this brain region results in expressive aphasia - you can understand speech but you are unable to produce speech
wernicke’s area
damage to this brain region results in receptive aphasia - you are unable to understand speech but are able to produce speech
aphasia
an impairment in speech production or comprehension (or both) that is caused by damage to the speech centers in the brain
Pythagoras
interested in uncovering the mathematical laws of the universe
pitch
the psychological perception of a frequency
octave
the interval between sound frequencies with a 2:1 ratio
equal temperament
used in Western music
tone height
level of pitch (low to high)
tone chroma
a quality shared by items with the same musical notes
chords
a combination of 2 or more notes
dyad
2 notes combined
triad
3 notes combined
2 types of chords
consonant and dissonant
consonant
combinations of notes with simple ratios e.g. 3:2
dissonant
combinations of notes with less elegant ratios e.g. 16:15
melody
a sequence of notes or chords perceived as a coherent structure (any melody can be transposed into a new set of notes) e.g. Happy Birthday or ABCs
tempo
the same melody can be played at varying speeds as long as the relative duration of notes is held constant, measured in BPM
rhythm
number of beats in a given section of a melody
Bolton
rhythm perception
-played a series of equally spaced sounds to listeners
-there was no rhythm to the sound
-people tended to group the sounds into a rhythm
syncopation
any deviation from a regular rhythm e.g. common in jazz
syncopated auditory polyrhythms
-dominant rhythm: 3 beats
-nondominant rhythm: 4 beats
pentatonic scale
5 notes instead of 7
Dowling and Harwood’s universal rules of musical systems
- the octave is a basic principle in pitch organization
- a logarithmic pitch scale
- discrete pitch levels
- 5-7 unequally spaced pitches in a scale
- hierarchies of stability for pitch
Lynch et al.’s musical perception in infants
-method: had American infants listen to musical scales and detect whether a mistuning was present
-key manipulation: western scales vs. Indonesian scales
-result: infants could detect mistuning equally well in Western and Indonesian scales, whereas adults showed a strong benefit in their native scale
Tsimane case study
universal agreement on what sounds good? people could easily classify the chords but found them both equally pleasing
absolute pitch
some people can hear a musical note in isolation and name it
Sir Francis Galton
argued talented people have talented relatives, and innate ability, not much support for this claim
Anders Ericsson
-expert on expertise
-expertise is solely due to the level of practice
-10 year rule, 2-5 hours a day (10,000 hours)
Ericsson, Krampe & Romer
-violinists retrospectively reported practice habits
-4 levels: professional, best, good, teachers
-showed more practice = better
accelerometer
measures inertial motion
gyroscope
measures orientation
magnetometer
measures the magnetic poles
almost every vertebrate for the past 500 million years has…
internal accelerometer and gyroscope
some birds have…
magnetometer
spatial orientation
a sense consisting of three interacting modalities: perception of linear motion, perception of angular motion, and perception of tilt
linear motion
translational movement in one direction
angular motion
rotational motion like that of a spinning top or the swinging doors of a saloon
tilt
to attain a sloped position like the leaning tower of Pisa
vestibular system
-sensory organs that contribute to the detection of self-motion and orientation
-crucial for balance and coordination
-visual stability, balance, autonomic, spatial orientation
the vestibular system is located in the …
semicircular canals
semicircular canals
they detect angular motion involved in head and body rotations
angular motion
a rotational acceleration such as when you spin around or turn your head
head roll (tilt head to left or right)
posterior semicircular canal
pitch (lean head forward or backward)
anterior semicircular canal
yaw (turn head left or right)
horizontal semicircular canal
how do the semicircular canals transduce angular motion into a neural signal?
-the canals are filled with endolymph (fluid)
-the ampulla: retina of vestibular system
how does the ampulla work?
-the endolymph fluid hits a jelly-like structure called the cupula
-the cupula is attached to the cilia
-it then pushes the cilia in a certain direction
-depending on which way the cilia are pushed
the semicircular canals respond to …
accelerations, not velocity
velocity
speed at which something moves
acceleration
a change in velocity
what organs detect linear motion and tilt?
otolith organs
linear motion
nonrotational movement in a uniform direction
tilt
the orientation of the head/body about gravity
the macula
-otoconia: tiny calcium carbonate stones that provide inertial mass for organs
-otolithic membrane: gelatinous membrane that bends with linear motion
-hair cells: are bent by the motion of the otolithic organ, creating a neural signal
utricle
sensitive to horizontal movement
saccule
sensitive to vertical movement
velocity storage
-your vestibular system detects changes in linear/rotational motion
-after initial exposure, the vestibular system gradually habituates to the rotational motion
-result: once the physical motion stops, you perceive rotational motion in the opposite direction
vection
the illusory sense of self-motion caused a visual stimulus moving in the opposite direction, you feel like you’re moving due to a visual stimulus even if there is no actual motion
what does vection tell us?
the vestibular system and the visual system are highly integrated sensory systems
sensory integration
-the process of combining multiple sensory signals
-often, combining signals yields more accurate information than obtained by the individual sensory signals
what stabilizes the eyes?
the vestibular system
vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)
a reflex that helps the eyes stabilize vision by counter-rotating the eyes in the opposite direction of a head rotation
autonomic system
-the part of the nervous system that is responsible for regulating many involuntary actions and that innervates glands, the heart, the digestive system, etc.
-the vestibular system makes crucial contributions
-comprises the sympathetic division and parasympathetic division
motion sickness
a vestibule-autonomic response that causes us to feel symptoms of nausea, disorientation, and vomiting, disagreement between motion signals from the vestibular system and the visual system
blood pressure regulation
-the vestibular system also regulates autonomic responses related to blood pressure
-when going from laying down to standing, the heart needs to increase blood flow to compensate for gravity
what happens with the vestibular system malfunctions?
spatial disorientation, imbalance, difficulty stabilizing the eyes on objects while the head moves, nausea or vomiting
mal de debarquement syndrome
when people are at sea but they have a difficult time adjusting back to land, sick for several months
meniere’s syndrome
sudden onsets of dizziness, imbalance, and disorientation that afflicts about 1 in 500 people in mid-adulthood
sensory threshold
the minimum amount of a stimulus that is detectable
two-point threshold
the minimum distance at which two touch stimuli are perceptible as separated
touch
sensations caused by mechanical stimulation of the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints
5 touch sensations
tactile, pain, temperature, kinesthesia, proprioception
transduced
physical energy into a chemical response
types of touch receptors
tactile receptors, kinesthetic receptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors
epidermis
dead outer layer of skin cells protects the body from infection and pathogens
dermis
thick layer of living tissue that contains blood vessels, sweat glands, and other stuff
subcutis
a layer of connective tissue
mechanoreceptors
a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical stimulation (pressure, vibration, or movement)
4 types of mechanoreceptors
Meissner corpuscle, Merkel cell neuritis complex, Ruffini ending, Pacinian corpuscle
2 properties of mechanoreceptors
-size of receptive field: the extent of the body area that elicits
-the rate of adaption: fast adapting (FA): respond when skin is first stimulated and when stimulation is removed. not between the onset and offset of stimulation - slow adapting (SA): remain active through the period during which the stimulus is in contact with its receptive field
slow adapting, type 1 (Merkel)
respond to sustained pressure at a very low frequency, useful for texture perception and pattern/form of surfaces, e.g. braille
slow adapting, type 2 (Ruffini)
sustained downward pressure, lateral skin stretches, useful for knowing your finger positions, e.g. reaching for a coffee cup
fast adapting, type 1 (Meissner)
low-frequency vibrations of 5-50 hz, useful for knowing when objects are slipping out of grasp
fast adapting, type 2 (Pacinian)
high-frequency vibrations of 50-700 Hz, useful for knowing when an object first makes contact with skin
