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Psych 4110: Exam 1 > Psych 4110: Exam 1 > Flashcards

Psych 4110: Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

sensation

A

the ability to detect a stimulus

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2
Q

perception

A

the act of giving meaning to a detected stimulus

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3
Q

Gustav Fechner

A

created psychophysics

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4
Q

what is psychophysics?

A

the science of defining quantitative relationships between physical stimuli and the psychological experience of those stimuli

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5
Q

magnitude estimation

A

the strategy of having participants assign an estimated value to a physical stimulus

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6
Q

Fechner’s Law

A

the observer is less sensitive at high physical intensities than at low physical intensities

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7
Q

absolute threshold

A

the minimum amount of physical stimulus intensity necessary for a person to detect 50% of the time

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8
Q

absolute threshold in the real world- examples

A

Vision: stars at night, a candle flame 30 miles away on a dark, clear night
Hearing: a ticking watch 20 feet away, with no other noise
Vestibular: a tilt of less than half a minute on a clock face
Taste: a teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water
Smell: a drop of perfume in three rooms
Tough: the wing of a fly falling on your cheek from a height of 3 inches

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9
Q

method of constant stimuli

A

present tones of different volumes (dB) in a random order

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10
Q

method of limits

A

present tones in an ascending or descending order

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11
Q

method of adjustment

A

the participant adjusts the volume until they can hear the tone

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12
Q

signal detection theory

A

-Green and Swets (1996) have a revolutionary idea about perception
The observer’s goal is to detect a signal amongst a noise
-Signal: what you are trying to detect
-Noise: internal and external factors that make the signal hard to detect
-Some people might have a better sensitivity than others
-A person can shift their response criterion, depending on the desired type of error
-We must set a response criterion
-Signal detection theory is everywhere

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13
Q

sensory receptors

A

transforms stimulus energy into electrical energy that neurons can use to communicate

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14
Q

your brain uses…

A

the most energy out of any organ, 20% of total energy

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15
Q

glial cells

A

-there are 3x more glial cells than neurons in your brain
-maintains the integrity of the neurons
-act as structural support for neurons

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16
Q

central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord

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17
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

periphery nerves, none in the head

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18
Q

the cranial nerves…

A

bypass the peripheral nervous system and connect directly to the brain

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19
Q

behavioral experiments

A

-measure response time and accuracy to sensory stimuli
-most modern behavioral/psychophysical experiments are computer-based

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20
Q

eye tracker

A

specialized camera uses infrared light to measure eye movements

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21
Q

electroencephalography (EEG)

A

-several electrodes are placed on the scalp
-measure electrical activity from populations of neurons in the brain
-the electrodes measure voltage fluctuations over time (brainwaves)

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22
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

-measure the amount of oxygenated blood in a given brain region
-blood-oxygen level- dependent (BOLD) signal

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23
Q

single unit recording

A

-recording action potentials from a single neuron via a micro electrode
-invasive: this requires opening the skull and pushing an electrode through brain tissue
-prohibited in humans (only mice and monkeys)

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24
Q

other methods to measure perception

A

-computer simulations
magnetoencephalggram (MEG)
-functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

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25
Q

photon

A

particle of light

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26
Q

light is a…

A

waveform that is generated

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27
Q

some basic principles of light

A

-only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to humans
-the color of light depends upon it’s wavelength
-the color of objects is due to wavelengths that are reflected, not absorbed
-the direction of light waves can be altered when they pass from one medium to another (called refraction)

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28
Q

how does the eye perceive light?

A

-enters the CORNEA (transparent membrane)
-through the ANTERIOR CHAMBER (pouch of fluid, aqueous humor)
-IRIS (circular muscles that control the size of the pupil)
-PUPIL (hole in front of the eye)
-LENS (focuses the light by bending itself)
-VITREOUS CHAMBER (inner chamber of the eyeball, vitreous humor (fluid that fills the eye and maintains shape of eye))
-RETINA (light is transducer into a neural signal)
-OPTIC NERVE (where neural signal leaves your eye)

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29
Q

light adaptation

A

process in which your visual system adjusts to the overall light levels, takes 20-25 minutes

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30
Q

how do we achieve such a broad range of light adaptation?

A
  1. pupil dilation
  2. photopigment regeneration
  3. neural circuity
  4. duplex retina
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31
Q

pupil dilation

A

you can physically adjust the amount of light entering the eye

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32
Q

photopigment regeneration

A

-photopigments used to transduce light into a neural signal
-once they are used, they take time to regenerate
-if they can regenerate fast enough, we can perceive very bright stimuli

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33
Q

bleaching

A

if too many light photons overwhelm the photoreceptors, they will use up all the photopigments

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34
Q

neural circuitry

A

-the retina is set up to detect contrast changes via retinal ganglion cells
-basically, bright lights will simultaneously inhibit and excite the retinal system

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35
Q

duplex retina

A

-the center of your retina (fovea) is full of cones, whereas the periphery of your retina is full of rods
-rods detect dim light, and cones detect bright light

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36
Q

Properties of Photopic System (central vision, retina)

A

-photoreceptor: 4-5 million cones
-location on retina: mostly fovea
-spatial acuity: high
-light sensitivity: low
-color vision: trichromatic

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37
Q

Properties of Scotopic System (peripheral vision)

A

-photoreceptor: 90 million rods
-location on retina: outside fovea
-spatial acuity: low
-light sensitivity: high
-color vision: none

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38
Q

scotopic

A

full of rods that are poor at color discrimination

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39
Q

photopic

A

full of cones which are good at color discrimination

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40
Q

refraction

A

the phenomenon whereby light changes direction (or bends) as it passes from one medium to another

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41
Q

optical lense

A

-a device that focuses light via refraction
-magnifying glass, contacts, etc.

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42
Q

wedge prism goggles

A

a type of goggles that distorts the retinal image, makes everything look upside down

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43
Q

prism adaptation

A

when participants wear prism goggles, they learn how to adapt their motor movements to accommodate the distorted image

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44
Q

Martin et al. (1995)

A

-participants viewed the world through goggles that shifted images to the left
-tried to throw a ping-pong ball at a target object

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45
Q

how could you measure the size of the retinal image?

A

simple trigonometry

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46
Q

visual angle principle #1

A

if we hold viewing distance constant, shrinking an object will shrink the visual angle

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47
Q

visual angle principle #2

A

if we move an object closer to the eye, the visual angle will increase

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48
Q

a rule of thumb

A

if you hold your arm out, your thumbnail is about 1-2 degree angle

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49
Q

accommodation

A

-the process by which the eye changes its focus by bending the lens
-the lens focuses light on the retina via the ciliary muscles

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50
Q

when lens is flat

A

-focusing on far away object
-zonules of zinn are tight
-pulling lens out

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51
Q

when lens is bulged

A

-focusing on near objects
-zonules of zinn are loose

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52
Q

measuring the power of lens

A

diopter (D) = 1/focal distance in meters (F)

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53
Q

refractive error

A

-a very common disorder in which the image of the world is not properly focused on the retina
-results: the retinal image is blurry and out-of-focus
-solution: corrective lenses
-cause: four different causes

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54
Q

focal point

A

where the “focused image” falls in relation to the retina

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55
Q

emmetropia

A

perfect vision
-the eyeball is shaped normally
-the focal point falls directly on the retina
-this causes the image to be perfectly focused

56
Q

myopia

A

near sightedness
-the eyeball is elongated in depth
-the focal point falls short of the retina
result: far-away objects appear out of focus
aid: concave lenses that distort vision so focal point goes farther back

57
Q

hyperopia

A

far sightedness
-the eyeball is shortened in depth
-the focal point falls beyond the retina
result: close-up objects appear out of focus
aid: convex lenses

58
Q

presbyopia

A

“old sight”
-the lens becomes less flexible with age
-sometimes the focal point falls short and sometimes falls beyond the retina
result: close-up and far-away objects appear out of focus

59
Q

astigmatism

A

-the cornea is misshaped causing light to be refracted in an abnormal manner
-this leads to multiple focal points
-not a lens problem
result: images are blurry at every distance

60
Q

what is color blindness?

A

-some people are born without certain types of photoreceptors
result: certain colors that are easily discriminable to most are undiscriminable to these patients
-affects an estimated 8% of men and 0.5% of women

61
Q

monochromats

A

-these individuals see everything in shades of gray
-very rare form of color blindness
-two subtypes: rod and cone monochromats
-missing 3 cone receptors, only have rods

62
Q

dichromats

A

-have only 2 of the 3 types of cones necessary to perceive color
-this makes colors difficult to discriminate
-3 basic types depending on which cone type (S,M, or L) is missing

63
Q

M cone missing

A

-most common
-deuteranopia (blue and yellow)

64
Q

L cone missing

A

protanopia (blue and yellow)

65
Q

S cone missing

A

tritanopia (red to pink to blue)

66
Q

Ishihara Test

A

-we cannot tell what someone’s phenomenological experience of color is
-but we can tell whether someone can discriminate two different colors or not
-observers are forced to do a color discrimination in order to report a number value

67
Q

on cells

A

increase firing rates in response to a photoreceptor sensing light

68
Q

off cells

A

decrease firing rates in response to a photoreceptor sensing light

69
Q

ganglion cells

A

-each ganglion cell is connected to several bipolar cells
-on-center: excitatory center (on) and inhibitory surround (off)
-off-center: inhibitory center (off) and excitatory surround (on)
-on-center and off-center ganglion cells respond to different light patterns

70
Q

spatial frequencies

A

-the number of grating cycles in a given unit of space
-these are commonly studied with Gabor patches

71
Q

contrast

A

-how different the bars are from each other in color or luminance
-independent of spatial frequency

72
Q

contrast general rule

A

the higher the contrast, the more a retinal ganglion cell will fire (when the spatial grating aligns with the tuning properties of the cell)

73
Q

ganglion cells in the retina

A

the retina is covered in ganglion cells, it’s so crowded that their receptive fields overlap each other

74
Q

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

A

-a relay station that copies information onward to visual cortex
-complex organizational structure that preserves left vs. right information
-magnocellular: two layers of large cells that encode large moving objects
-parvocellular: four layers of small cells that encode details of stationary objects

75
Q

cortical magnification

A

-the center of the visual field has more V1 neurons representing it than the periphery of the visual field
-fovea accounts for .01% of the retinal image, it consists of ~10% of neurons in V1 cortex

76
Q

retinotopic organization

A

-V1 cortex is organized so that spatial information from the retina is retained
-In V1, the fovea to 2.5 degrees are near each other
-likewise, 2.5 degrees and 5 degrees are near one another

77
Q

neurons in V1

A

-respond to simple line orientations
-accumulates information across several ganglion cells

78
Q

primary visual cortex (V1)

A

-the neurons in primary visual cortex accumulate information across several retinal ganglion cells
-this allows them to detect simple visual features (lines and edges)

79
Q

extrastriate cortex

A

-the regions that border V1
-Examples: V2, V3, V4, MT
-progressively tuned for more complex features

80
Q

macaque monkeys

A

have regions of visual cortex that are comparable to humans (homologue to human visual system)

81
Q

neurons in V1 do not care about

A

border ownership

82
Q

border ownership

A

-when one object is in front of another, there will be a visual border formed between the object and the background
-that border is “owned” by the object… it is a property of the object not the background

83
Q

neurons in secondary visual cortex (V2) are sensitive to…

A

border ownership

84
Q

low-level vision

A

recognizing simple features

85
Q

mid-level vision

A

grouping simple features into an object

86
Q

object recognition

A

matching an object to memory

87
Q

Gestalt means what in German

A

pattern or configuration

88
Q

Gestalt psychology

A

-“the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
-made up a set of Gestalt Principles
-These “grouping rules” are useful when thinking about mid-level vision

89
Q

illusory contours

A

a false edge that is perceived but is not present in the physical stimulus

90
Q

occlusion

A

when an object is covered up by another object

91
Q

GP: good continuation

A

two elements will tend to group together if they seem to fall on the same line

92
Q

GP: closure

A

a closed contour is preferred to an open contour

93
Q

texture segmentation

A

parsing an image into regions of common texture properties

94
Q

GP: parallelism

A

parallel contours tend to group together

95
Q

GP: symmetry

A

symmetrical regions are more likely to be grouped

96
Q

figure-ground segmentation

A

the process of determining which item belongs to the foreground and which item belongs to the background

97
Q

global superiority effect

A

many experiments suggest that the properties of the whole object dominate local identities

98
Q

common problems for mid-level vision

A

inferring edges, texture grouping, figure vs. ground, occlusion, global vs. local

99
Q

basic tools of Gestalt principles

A

similarity, good continuation, surroundedness, proximity, closure

100
Q

ambiguous figures

A

doesn’t matter how they are perceived because they can be perceived so many different ways

101
Q

top-down perception

A

-perception driven by experience, expectations, context, or learning
-the visual system is often making an educated guess about the actual state of the world
-problem? the visual system is susceptible to accidental viewpoints

102
Q

3 basic challenges to imitate human object recognition

A

-multiple viewpoints
-multiple classes of the same object
-recognizing objects at different levels of specificity

103
Q

template matching models

A

propose that the visual system recognizes objects by matching the neural representation of the image with a stored representation of the same “shape” in the brain

104
Q

problem with template matching model?

A

how many templates would be needed to make this model actually function

105
Q

structural description model

A

a description of an object in terms of its parts and the relationships between those parts

106
Q

problem with structural description model?

A

some have argued this model does not do a good job of explaining a viewpoint specific effects

107
Q

dorsal “where” pathway

A

-top back of brain
-processes information about the locations of objects and how to interact with them
-crucial for visual attention
-motor training and such

108
Q

ventral “what” pathway

A

-bottom back to bottom middle of brain
-processes information about identity of objects
-crucial for object recognition

109
Q

inferotemporal (IT) cortex

A

-this region of cortex seems to be particularly important for object recognition
-some neurons in IT visual cortex seemed tuned to very specific types of stimuli
-“grandmother cells”
-some neurons in IT visual cortex seemed tuned to very specific types of objects
-but there is probably not a special region (or neuron) for each type of object in the world

110
Q

visual agnosia

A

-inability to recognize objects in spite of the ability of being able to see them
-low and mid-level vision are intact, but object recognition is impaired
-typically a result of brain damage to the IT cortex

111
Q

visual form agnosia

A

-low-level vision intact, but cannot discriminate simple objects
-these patients have a hard time perceiving coherent objects
-cannot copy drawings of simple letters and shapes

112
Q

associative agnosia

A

-can easily perceive objects as a whole but cannot verbally name the objects
-can perceive objects but not recognize them
-can copy the object but cannot name what they copied

113
Q

prosopagnosia

A

can perceive and name objects normally, except for faces

114
Q

Thatcher illusion

A

-“Face Inversion Effect”
-when you rearrange the parts of an upside down face, it’s hard to notice

115
Q

why is face processing special?

A

global effects, expertise, and emotion

116
Q

light is a…

A

waveform

117
Q

light sources

A

objects that generate electromagnetic energy in the visible spectrum - sun, lamps, tvs

118
Q

pigments

A

objects that reflect light from light sources - inks, clothes, leaves

119
Q

subtractive color mixing

A

a mixture of pigments - the wavelengths of the two pigments act like filters when they combine

120
Q

pigments absorb…

A

some light and reflect some light, we see the reflected light

121
Q

additive color mixing

A

a mixture of lights - the wavelength of the two lights add together to form a new color

122
Q

3 different types of cones

A

short (blue), medium (green), and long (red)

123
Q

principle of univariance

A

a single photoreceptor cannot feasibly discriminate color

124
Q

the trichromatic theory of color vision

A

three types of photoreceptors help us discriminate colors

125
Q

the visible color spectrum

A

continuous, no discrete categorical borders, we create artificial borders when we talk about colors

126
Q

basic color terms

A

single words that are used to describe a color - meaning is agree upon by speakers of a language

127
Q

how many basic color terms are there in English?

A

11

128
Q

mola

A

light-warm colors

129
Q

mili

A

dark-cool colors

130
Q

cultural relativism

A

the idea that basic perceptual experiences can be shaped by cultural history of the individual

131
Q

negative afterimages

A

-we adapt to the colors that are viewed short periods of time
-when these colors are removed, we see the opponent colors
-this is because opponent color processes in the brain will habituate over short intervals

132
Q

color constancy

A

-the tendency of a surface to appear the same color under a wide range of light sources
-result: viewing conditions can make the same physical colors look like a different color

133
Q

human color vision is

A

trichromatic

134
Q

color mixtures of light are

A

additive

135
Q

color mixtures of pigments are

A

subtractive

136
Q

color perception is greatly influenced by

A

context and recent experience (top-down processes)

Psych 4110: Exam 1 (2 decks)

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