psyc exam 2 Flashcards
Health psychology
how psychosocial factors relate to the promotion/maintenance
of health and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness
Biopsychosocial model
physical illness is caused by a complex interaction of
biological, psychological, and social factors
Type A personality
strong competitive orientation, impatience and time urgency,
anger and hostility; ambitious, perfectionists, time-conscious
Type B personality
relaxed, patient, easygoing, and amicable behavior
Rumination
engaging in repetitive negative thinking about some event
Depressive disorders
persistent feelings of sadness/despair; most common
development after a heart attack
* Emotional dysfunction of depression doubles ones chances of developing
heart disease
Immune response
is the body’s defensive reaction to
invasion of bacteria, viral agents, other foreign
substances
* During stressful events, immune response is down
* Ex.) Finals week, loneliness, depression, marital
problems, social ladder perceptions
Engaging in unhealthy habits results in half of all deaths each year, why?
- Health-impairing habits develop slowly over time
* 2. Health-imparing habits involve activities that are pleasant at the time
* 3. Health-imparing habits are associated with chronic diseases
* 4. People have tendency to underestimate the risks associated with their own health
habits while viewing others self-destructive habits more accurately
Unrealistic optimism
aware risk factors are dangerous, but view them as risks for
others and not themselves
Alcohol dependence (alcoholism)
chronic, progressive disorder marked by
growing compulsion to drink & impaired control over drinking that eventually
interferes with health/social behavior
Set point theory
proposes that the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and
weight) fairly stable
Setting point theory
proposes that weight tends to drift around the level that
determine food consumption/energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium
Nutrition
collection of processes (food
consumption) through which an organism
uses materials (nutrients) required for survival
and growth
Nutritional goals
- Consume a balanced variety of foods: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins,
minerals, and fiber
* 2. Avoid excessive consumption of saturated fats, cholesterol, refined-grain
carbohydrates, sugar, and salt: red meats, whole milk, fried foods
* 3. Increase consumption of polyunsaturated fats, whole-grain carbohydrates,
natural sugars, and foods with fiber: fish, poultry, non-fat milk, whole-grain
foods, fruits and veggies
Developing an exercise program
- Search for an activity you find enjoyable
- Exercise regularly without overdoing it
- Increase the amount of time you exercise gradually
- Reinforce yourself for participation
- Never too late mentality
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
disorder in which the immune
system is weakened/eventually disabled by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Seeking medical attention process
60% of people who visit primary care physicians
have little medical basis for visiting
1. Determine what physical sensations are symptoms
2. Decide if symptoms warrants medical attention
3. Make medical arrangements for care
Tolerance
progressive decrease in responsiveness to a drug with continued use
Physical dependence
when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid
withdrawal symptoms
Psychological dependence
when a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy
intense mental/emotional cravings
Overdose
: excessive dose of a drug that can threaten one’s life
Narcotics
drugs derived from opium that relieves pain
Ex.) Oxycotin, codeine, demerol, Vicodin
Effects: euphoria, nausea, lethargy, drowsiness, constipation, slowed respiration
Risks: physical & psychological dependence
Sedatives
sleep-inducing drugs; decreases CNS activity
Ex.) Valium, alcohol
Effects: large doses -> euphoric effect similar to alcohol, anxiety/depression reduced,
reduced motor coordination, slurred speech, staggering gait, judgment impaired,
unstable emotionality
Risks: psychological & physical dependence, accidental injuries
Stimulants
: increases central nervous system & behavioral activity
Ex.) Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA
Effects: euphoria, enthusiasm, energetic, increased BP, muscle tension, sweating,
restlessness, irritability, anxiety, paranoia
Risks: mild physical dependence, strong psychological dependence, poor eating/
sleeping habits -> deterioration of physical health, increased risk for heart attack,
respiratory issues, intense paranoia
Hallucinogens
diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental/
emotional functioning, distortions of sensation/perception
Ex.) LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, marijuana, MDMA
Effects: euphoria, anxiety, fear, paranoia
Risks: no physical dependence, psychological dependence is rare, disorientation ->
accidents/suicide, depression, paranoia
Self-concept/self-schema
collection of beliefs about one’s own basic nature, unique
quality, and typical behavior
* Shape social perception
* Developed from past experience; early in life
* Personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, and social & cultural
roles
Possible selves
one’s conceptions about the kind of person one might become in the
future
* Self-concepts malleable
* Once developed, preservation is key
Self-discrepancy
consists of mismatch between the self-perceptions that make up
the actual self-perceptions that make up the actual self, ideal self, and ought-self
* When the actual self is at odds of the ideal self
* Mismatch between actual and ought selves
Social comparison theory
proposes that individuals compare themselves with
others in order to assess their abilities and opinions
Reference group
a set of people who are used as a gauge in making social
comparison
Upward social comparisons
can motivate you/direct your future
Downward social comparisons
boosts self-esteem
Michelangelo phenomenon
reflects the partner’s role in sculpting reality into
ideal self of loved one
Individualism
involves putting personal goals ahead of the group goals & defining
one’s own identity in terms of personal attributes vs. group memberships;
independent view
Collectivism
putting group goals ahead of personal goals & defining one’s group
identity ahead of their own; interdependent view
Self-esteem
refers to one’s overall assessment of one’s worth as a person
Trait self-esteem
confident, take credit for success, downplay/ignore criticism
State self-esteem
dynamic & changeable, how individuals feel about themselves in
the moment
Interpersonal
self-esteem is a subjective measure
of one’s own interpersonal popularity & success
authoritarian parenting
strict, punishment, rules (low self esteem)
authoritative parenting
kind, understanding, tries to get to solution through words (high self esteem)
permissive parenting
child gets whatever they want / spoiled (high self esteem)
neglectful parenting
parents are absent, child has little support (low and high self esteem)
Automatic processing
mindlessness; creating healthy habits/routines to save
cognitive resources
Selective attention
high priority is given to information regarding the self
Controlled processing
mindfulness; dedicating cognitive resources to problem
solving
Self-attributions
inferences that people
draw about the causes of their own behavior
Internal attributions
ascribe the causes
of behavior to personal dispositions,
traits, abilities, & feelings
External attributions
ascribes causes of
behavior to situational/environmental
constraints
Explanatory style
tendency to use similar causal attributions for a wide variety of
events in one’s life; optimistic vs. pessimistic
Self-assessment motive
reflected in people’s desire for truthful information about
themselves
Dunning-Krueger effect
self-distorting bias when we fail to recognize our own
lack of skill, we miss recognizing the genuine skill enacted — we remain unaware of
how inadequate/adequate we are when it comes to the ability
Affective forecasting
people repeatedly mistake how much they’ll feel wins/
lossess
* Impact bias
Self-enhancement motive
tendency to seek positive & reject negative information
about ourselves
* Observed response, behavior, process, personality trait, underlying motive
Better-than-average effect
tendency to routinely overrate your performance
on tasks
Downward social comparisons
defensive tendency to compare oneself with
troubles who are more serious than one’s own
Self-serving bias
tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors & one’s
failures to situational factors
Basking in reflected glory
tendency to enhance one’s image by publicly
announcing one’s association with those who are successful
Self-handicapping
the tendency to sabotage one’s performance to provide an
excuse for possible failure
Self-regulation
process of directing/
controlling one’s behavior to achieve desired
goals; develops early in life & remains stable
throughout ones life
Self-efficacy
refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should
lead to expected outcomes
* Related to health promotion, academic performance, career choice, job satisfaction, and
job performance
Developing self-efficacy:
- Mastery experiences
2.Vicarious experiences
3.Persuasion & encouragement - Interpretation of emotional arousal
Self-defeating behavior
seemingly intentional actions to thwart self-interest
* Deliberate self-destruction
* Counterproductive strategies
Public self
an image presented to others in
social interactions; a more consistent sense
across domains = well adjusted
Spotlight effect
people tend to believe that
others notice/evaluate them more than what
actually happens
Impression management
refers to usually conscious efforts by people to influence
how others think of them
Ingratiation
behaving in ways to make oneself likable to others
Self-promotion
earning respect by reflecting on your positive traits
Supplication
to get favors from others, individuals make themselves appear weak/
dependent
Negative acknowledgment
confessing to an error you made makes you come off
positively
Self-monitoring
the degrees to which people attend to/control the impressions they make on others
Building self-esteem
- Recognize you control your self-image
- Learn more about yourself
- Don’t let others set your goals
- Recognize unrealistic goals
- Modify negative self-talk
- Emphasize your strengths
- Cultivate a new strength
- Approach others with a positive outlook
Person perception
the process of forming impressions of others; observations from
others help us understand ourselves
1. Appearance
2. Verbal behavior: what/how much people disclose
3. Actions: most accurate portrayal of people’s character
4. Nonverbal messages: eye contact, facial expressions, language, gestures
5. Situational cues: provides information of people’s behavior
Snap judgments
quick judgments,
saves cognitive resources; usually
used to observe others
Systematic judgments
more
deliberation, requires more cognitive
resources; can be used to observe
others in a number of situations
Attributions
inferences that
people draw about the causes of
their own behavior, others behavior,
and events
Internal attributions
people’s
behavior explained by their
disposition (i.e., personality,
abilities)
External attributions
people’s
behavior explained by
environmental/situational factors
Perceiver’s expectations
confirmation bias & self-fulfilling prophecies
Confirmation bias
the tendency to seek information that supports ones beliefs
while not pursuing disconfirming information
Primacy effect
occurs when initial information carries more weight than following
information
Perceiver’s expectations
confirmation bias &
self-fulfilling prophecies
Self-fulfilling prophecy
occurs when
expectations about a person causes them to
behave in ways that confirm the expectations
Stereotypes
widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of
their membership in a particular group
* Ingroup vs. Outgroup membership
* Robber’s Cave Study
Fundamental attribution error
refers to the tendency to explain other
people’s behavior as the result of
personal rather than situational factors
Defensive attribution
: tendency to
blame victims for their misfortune so
that one feels less likely to be
victimized in a similar way
Prejudice
negative attitude toward members of a group
Authoritarian personality
personality trait; prejudice toward any outgroup one
may not identify with
Right-wing authoritarianism
submission to authority, aggression, and
conventionalism
Social dominance orientation (SDO)
personality trait; feelings of superiority over
other groups
Discrimination
behaving differently/unfairly toward members of a group
Old fashioned discrimination
overt discrimination; declining in the US
Modern discrimination
when people privately harbor racist/sexists attitudes but
only express them when it feels safe to do so
* Ex.) Opposing programs intended to promote equality
Aversive racism
indirect, subtle, ambiguous form; occurs when conscious
beliefs in equality conflicts with unconscious, negative acts toward minority
group members
Stereotype threat
when
stereotypes about your group
affect your development
Persuasion
involves the communication of arguments and information intended
to change another person’s attitudes
Attitudes
beliefs/feelings about people, objects, and ideas -> influences
behavior
Source
the person who sends communication (credibility, likability,
trustworthiness, attractiveness, similarity)
Receiver
: the person to whom the message is sent
Message
the information is transmitted by the source
Channel
medium through which the message is sent
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
an individual’s thoughts about a
persuasive message (rather than content of the message itself) determine whether
attitude change will occur
Peripheral route
automatic processing/snap judgments; attitude is changed
by cues of the message (rather than the message itself) -> easy/quick to change
attitude
* Ex.) Appealing scene/source
Central route
deliberative processing/elaborative thinking; attitude is changed
by the logic/merits of the message -> difficult/work required to change attitude
* Ex.) Motivation to follow up research & ability to grasp the concept
Conformity
occurs when people yield to real/imagined
social pressure; group size matters
Compliance
occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior,
even though their private beliefs have not changed
Normative influence
operates when people conform to social norms for fear
of negative consequences
* Ex.) Job interview
Informational influence
operates when people look to others for how to
behave in ambiguous situations
Bystander effect
the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide
help when others are present than when they are alone
Obedience
is a form of compliance that
occurs when people follow direct
commands, usually from someone in a
position of authority
* Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study
* Displays power of the social situation
vs. individual factors
