exam Flashcards
psychology
science of behavior and mental/physiological process
adjustment
psychological process, people cope with demands/challenges of everyday life
empiricism
knowledge should be acquired through observation
experiment
research method, investigator manipulates one variable (independent variable) in controlled condition & observes changes that may occur in the other variable (dependent variable)
independent variable
condition that experimenter varies to see its impact of the independent variable
dependent variable
variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
experimental group
subjects who receive special treatment in regard to the independent variable
correlation
exists when two variables are related to each other
correlation coefficient
numerical index of the degree of a relationship that exists between two variables
positive correlation
2 variable covary in the same direction
negative correlation
2 variables covary in the opposite direction
naturalistic observation
careful observation without intervening
case study
in-depth investigation of an individual subject
survey
structured questions/interviews designed to solicit information about participant behavior, attitudes and beliefs
subjective well-being
individuals personal assessment of their overall happiness/ life satisfaction
affective forecasting
efforts to predict ones emotional reactions to future events ; people are bad at this
personality
an individuals unique mix of consistent behavioral traits
personality traits
durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations
five factor model of personality
1.openness: curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, artistic
2.conscientiousness: diligent, disciplined, organized, punctual, dependable
3.extraversion: outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive
4.agreeableness: sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest straightforward
5.neuroticism: anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, vulnerable
psychodynamic theories
Freudian theories; focus on unconscious mental forces
Id: primitive, instinctive component of personality
>pleasure principle: demands immediate gratification
Ego: decision-making component of personality
>reality principle: delay gratification of urges until appropriate
super-ego: moral component of personality; right/wrong
the unconscious
difficult to retrieve material; well below the surface of awareness
behaviorism
theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study observable behavior
classical conditioning
learned response; stimuli evokes a response that was initially evoked by another stimuli ; Pavlov
unconditional stimulus: stimulus that an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
unconditioned response: unlearned reaction to unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
conditioned stimulus: initially neutral stimulus that evokes a response through conditioning
conditioned response: leaned reaction to conditioned stimulus through previous conditioning
operant conditioning
form of listening; voluntary response are controlled by consequences; skinner
reinforcement
behavior is strengthened through:
>positive reinforcement: response is strengthened/increased frequency due to addition of a pleasant stimulus
>negative reinforcement: response is strengthened/ increased frequency due to removal of unpleasant stimulus
punishment
response is weakened/decreased frequency due to unpleasant stimulus
social cognitive theory
people actively seek out/process information in environment to maximize favorable outcomes; bandura
observational learning
organisms response is influenced by observation of others
self-efficacy
ones belief about their ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes
humanism
emphasizes unique qualities of humans; free will/personal growth
self concept
collection of beliefs about ones own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior; rogers
Incongruence
disparity between ones self concept and actual experience
Hierarchy of needs
systematic
arrangement of needs
according to priority; basic
needs must be met to achieve
higher levels; Maslow
Need for self-actualization
the need to
fulfill one’s potential; highest
need in the hierarchy
Twin studies
researchers assess hereditary influence
by comparing the resemblance of identical twins/
fraternal twins
Heritability ratio
estimated proportion of trait
variability in a population that is determined by
variations in genetic inhertiance
Evolutionary psychology
examines behavioral processes
in terms of adaptive value for members of a species over the
course of generations
Narcissism
personality trait marked by inflated sense of
self-importance, a need for attention and admiration, and a
sense of entitlement; measured by NPI
Individualism
involves putting
personal goals ahead of group goals
and defining one’s identity in terms
of personal attributes rather than
group membership
Collectivism
involves putting
group goals ahead of personal goals
and defining one’s own identity in
terms of the groups to which one
belongs
Reliability
refers to the measurement consistency of
test
Validity
refers to the ability of test to measure what it
was designed to measure
Self-report inventories of personality
personality scales that ask
individuals to answer a series of questions about
their characteristic behavior
Projective tests of personality
ask people to respond to vague, ambiguous
stimuli in ways that reveal the respondents needs, feelings,
and personality traits
Stress
any circumstances that threaten/are perceived to
threaten one’s well-being and tax one’s coping abilities
Primary appraisal:
initial evaluation of an event; irrelevant
vs. relevant but not threatening vs. stressful
Secondary appraisal
evaluation of your coping resources/
options for dealing with stress
Acute stressors
threatening events; short duration; clear
end point
Chronic stressors
threatening events; long duration; no
time limit
Anticipatory stressors
upcoming/future events perceived
to be threatening
4 major sources of stress
1.Frustration: when the pursuit of a goal is thwarted;
linked to aggression Ex.) failures/losses
2.Internal Conflict: 2+ incompatible
motivations compete for expression
* Approach-approach: a choice must be
made between 2 attractive goals
* Avoidance-avoidance: a choice must be
made between 2 unattractive goals
* Approach-avoidance: a choice must be
made about a single goal that has
attractive/unattractive aspects
- Change: noticeable
alterations in one’s
circumstances that require
readjustment - Pressure: expectations/demands to behave in a certain
way; related to unrealistic expectations
* Perform vs. conform
Emotions
powerful/largely uncontrollable feelings
accompanied by physiological changes
Negative emotions related to stress
Annoyance, anger, rage <- frustration
* Apprehension, anxiety, fear <- pressure, frustration, change
* Dejection, sadness, grief <- frustration
Positive emotions related to stress
contributes to social/intellectual/
physical resources that buffer the effects of stress
Autonomic nervous system
nerves that connect
heart, blood vessels, smooth
muscles, and glands
Sympathetic nervous system
tend/
befriend; fight or flight response
Parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest
Endocrine system
glands that secrete hormones into
bloodstream; activated by the hypothalamus
Coping
active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate demands
created by stress
* Healthy vs. unhealthy coping
5 common coping strategies of limited value
- Giving Up:
* Learned helplessness: passive behavior produced by
exposure to unavoidable aversive events - Acting Aggressively:
* Aggression: behavior intended to hurt someone;
physically/verbally; related to frustration
* Catharsis: release of emotional tension; displacement - Self-Indulgence: stress -> reduced impulse control
* Internet addiction: spending inordinate amount of time;
inability to control online use
* Excessive time online, anger/depression when not online,
escalating need for better equipment, adverse consequences
(lying, arguments) - Blaming Yourself: negative self-talk; catastrophic
thinking; irrational assumptions; counterproductive in
problem-solving - Defensive Coping:
Defense mechanisms:
Freudian; common
“unconscious” reactions;
protect self from anxiety/
guilt; self-deception
Constructive coping
healthy efforts to deal with stressful
events
Rational-emotive behavior therapy
focuses on clients’
patterns of irrational thinking -> maladaptive emotions/
behavior
Catastrophic thinking
unrealistic appraisals of stress; exaggerate
magnitude of problems
Humor
reduces stress;
improves emotions/mood;
decreases depression/
anxiety symptoms
* Self-enhancing vs. self-defeating
Positive reinterpretation
downward comparisons;
silver-linings
Emotional intelligence
ability to perceive/express emotion;
facilitate thought; understand/reason/regulate emotions
* High emotional intelligence = problem-solving when faced
with anxiety; related to positive emotional expression
* Low-emotional intelligence = use of distraction/denial;
increased burnout
Forgiveness
counteracting natural tendencies for
vengeance/avoidance; releasing liability for transgression;
effective coping; self-forgiveness
Exercising
outlet for frustration; distraction from stressor;
beneficial of psych/physical health; aerobic exercise
regularly
Meditation
family of mental
exercises; conscious attempt at
unanalytical focus
* Parasympathetic reaction;
reduces BP, stress, anxiety,
depression
1. Quiet environment
2. Mental device
3. Passive attitude
4. Comfortable position
Spirituality
90% population;
improves physical/mental health;
adequate coping tools
* Can be counterproductive to
some; instill guilt/create stress
Procrastination
tendency to delay tackling tasks until the
last minute ; 70-90% of college students; maladaptive coping/
increased stress
1. Personality: low self-efficacy, low conscientiousness; lack
of self-control; poor organization; low achievement
motivation; high distractibility
2. Desire to minimize time of task
3. Desire to optimize efficiency
4. Close proximity to reward
