PSYC 508: Counseling & Personality Theories

Question 1

1st and 2nd Order Cybernetics

Answer 1

• Relate to systems theory
• The study of communciation and the regulating feedback mechanisms within systems.

1st order - counselor observes system from an external perspective to gain understanding of the family dynamic and how the system opperates (as an expert observer).

2nd order - counselor no longer expert observer and is now a participant observer/therapist becomes a part of the familt system.

Widely used in therapy to conceptualize relationships and interactions within families and groups.

Ex: In a couples therapy session, the therapist has moved from 1st order to 2nd order cybernetics, assuming an active role in the dynmatic relationship as the couple and therapist co-create meaning and solutions.

Question 2

Adlerian Therapy

Answer 2

• Humanistic and goal-oriented approach developed by Alfred Adler
• Emphasizes individual’s drive for significance, social connection, and purpose.
• Widely used to help clients explore and change maladaptive behaviors, foster self-awareness, and develop healthier social relationships.

4 stages:
1) Forming the therapeutic relationship
2) Lifestyle assessemnt + analysis
3) Interprestation + Insight
4) Reorientation

Ex: Client feels the need to excel in every aspect of life to gain approval. Adlerian therapist might explore client’s early memories and family dynamics to uncover how their beliefs about success and self-worth developed and how they can interprest and realign goal in a healthy and postive way for their future self.

Question 3

Automatic Thoughts

Answer 3

• Term from Beck’s theory of cognitive therapy
• Conditioned, spontaneous (reflexive, habitual) thoughts that appear plausible in response to a particular stimulus
• May consist of dichotomous reasoning (always and never), personalization, and emotional reasoning
• The downward arrow method is used to explore what intermediate and core beliefs underlie automatic thoughts
• May be negative in nature and often serve a purpose of protecting the client in some way
• Generally triggered by life/stressful events
• It is important to identify and explore automatic thoughts, especially negative automatic thoughts, to challenge negative core beliefs and improve a client’s self-image, thus increasing confidence

Ex:

Question 4

Behavioral Activation

Answer 4

• Developed by Lewinsohn based on Skinner’s behavioral principles
• Type of behavior therapy often used to treat symptoms of depression
• Stems from the behavioral model that conceptualizes depression as a lack of positive reinforcement, and depression being maintained or worsened by isolation behaviors
• This therapy consists of clients scheduling particular activities that are positively reinforcing with the idea that those behaviors may lead to positive psychological and emotional changes as well

Ex: A freshmen student makes an appointment at their college counseling center. The student tells the therapist that they “just don’t have motivation” and that instead of going to class or socializing, the student lays in bed in their dorm. The therapist utilizes behavioral activation therapy by brainstorming how the client could engage on campus in ways that felt tolerable. Some examples may include going to at least one class a day, going to the dining hall a few times a week, or just walking around the dorm building once a day to get outside. The hope is that fighting the isolation behavior will help improve the depressive symptoms.

Question 5

Behavioral Therapy

Answer 5

• A therapeutic approach rooted in classical and operant conditioning, developed by Watson, and Skinner.
• the focus of therapy is primarily on the present.
• essentially consists of relearning and modifying observable behaviors through systematic techniques and strategies
• exposure therapy, systematic desensitization, token economies, and behavior modification are commonly employed
• effective for treating anxiety disorders, phobias, substance use disorders, and developmental or behavioral issues in children

Ex: Your client is a six year boy with impulsive behavior that is very distruptive at school. The school couselor works with the teacher to implement your recomondation of a token economy where the child earns 5 extra minute of playground time for every day he does not kick the teacher and his classmates.

Question 6

Big Fiver Personality Model/Traits

Answer 6

• Theory that believes personality can be broken down into 5 trait components: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. (OCEAN)
• Each trait exists on a spectrum offering insight into how traits influence behaviors, relationships, and coping mechanisms.
• Traits thought to be relatively stable in each individual over time
• The degree of these traits is greatly influenced by cultural norms
• Research-based foundation makes it a reliable framework for psychological assessments

Ex: Patients in a drug-treatment rehabilitation center participate in an OCEAN personality assessment activity to identify attributes that can influence their job search.

Question 7

Client-Centered/Person-Centered Theory/Therapy

Answer 7

• Carl Rogers’s theory of personality
• Optimistic, humanistic, and existential approach
• States that humans have a natural tendency toward growth/change and negative environmental influences are what disrupt this natural tendency
• In Person-Centered Therapy, the therapist approaches the client with unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness, serving as a role model for congruence between the real and ideal self.
• Important in counseling because it emphasizes the client’s autonomy and inner resources for healing, shifting the focus to the individual’s experience rather than the therapist’s expertise.

Ex: Mary is presenting to therapy with low self-worth and a history of staying in verbally abusive relationships with men. Her therapist patiently and actively listens as Mary reveals how her thoughts and behaviors towards dating typically result in these relationships. Her therapist does not rush her or fill in awkward pauses; they listen and create space for Mary to share.

Question 8

Cognitive Therapy

Answer 8

• Developed by Beck and later Ellis premise that one’s cognitions directly impact an individual’s feelings, behaviors, and overall functioning. Effective for treatment of depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD, and even chronic pain.
• Believes maladaptive thoughts are the root of psychological suffering
• The goal of Cog therapy is to challenge distorted and maladaptive beliefs to change them to more rational and adaptive thoughts
• Beck believed in challenging automatic thoughts and testing your hypotheses
• Used to treat mood disorders
• By helping clients recognize and challenge cognitive distortions, such as catastrophizing, black-and-white thinking, or overgeneralization, therapists enable client to develop more balanced and constructive thought patterns.

Ex: Client comes into therapy with depression. He has thoughts of “No one likes me”. The therapist employs cognitive therapy to test hypotheses of if these thoughts the client has are true. They refute the negative thought that no one likes me after they review evidence of people liking him. They replace these negative thoughts with more positive, adaptive thoughts.

Question 9

Common Factors in Psychotherapy

Answer 9

• Michael Lambert created common therapy factors.
• Identified four common factors and estimates how much each factor typically accounts for therapeutic change:
  *Client factors (40%) client assests, motivation, support systems
  *Therapeutic relationship (30%) – rapport , using unconditional positive regard, empathy
  *Expectancy (15%) – Hope for positive outcomes
  *Techniques (15%) – treatments for specific disorders including accurate identification of and therapist skills to treat
• Important because they emphasize the human and relational elements of therapy, which are applicable across populations and therapeutic modalities

Ex: Mark, a former armed forces member who has gained 50+ lbs since his medical discharge, is anxious and isolating himself, causing him to worry about his mental state. Mark presents to therapy with the hope of creating healthy habits that will impact his mindset and mood. Mark knows he is capable of hard work and commitment from his time in the military, and the tolerance and respect shown toward him by his therapist (also former military) encourages him to stay committed to his goals. Given these factors, Mark is likely to have positive outcomes from therapy.

Question 10

Conditional vs Unconditional Positive Regard

Answer 10

• Terms developed by Carl Rogers to describe whether support and acceptance are give with or without conditions

Conditional Positive Regard: offering acceptance or approval to someone based on their actions or behavior meeting certain conditions

Unconditional positive regard: accepting and vauling someone completely, regardless of their behavior or actions. Essentially showing love and support without any strings attached

• It is believed that unconditional positive regard is more valuable and influential in therapy where the client feels valued for who they are rather than what they achieve

Ex: A therapist might express approval when a client makes progress, such as saying, “You’re doing so well now that you’re keeping a consistent routine,” but become less supportive or even critical when the client regresses or struggles with keeping a consistent routine.

Question 11

Conditions of Worth

Answer 11

• Term developed by Rogers to describe standards placed on an individual by society/family/friends that tell the individual that they’re only worthy of love/acceptance when they meet certain guidelines
• When conditions of worth are placed on a person, this leads to incongruence and an inauthentic existence and can ultimately lead to psychopathology
• Developed in childhood and other life experiences

Ex: Alex is a straight-A student, a member of the student council, and a start track athlete. She studies 7 days a week and volunteers at her church. Alex is an only child with parents who divorced when she was young. Never wanting to upset her usually stressed-out mother, Alex learned to be agreeable and pleasant no matter how she was really feeling inside. Now, regardless of having a wide range of friends, Alex struggles with self-worth and believes that it is only because she is so agreeable that she has any friends at all.

Question 12

Countertransference

Answer 12

• Term developed by Freud
• Countertransference is when the counselor unconsciously redirects feelings, or is triggered by something the client has said, has done, or in the way they present themselves
• A projection of roles, expectations, or emotions
• Not necessarily good or bad but must be aware”

Ex: Therapist finds themselves distracted and annoyed by their client who remindes them of their own mother. Therapist grew up viewing their mother as a martyr who used the church as an excuse to never live a joy filled life. Therapist finds herself growing frustrated with her client who is staying in an emotionally abusive marriage bc is concerned about how divorice will make her look within her church community.

Question 13

Cultural Self-Awareness

Answer 13

• An individual’s multicultural competency and understanding of how culture influences the self
• Involves self-exploration about one’s own heritage and understanding/valuing the differences of others, without perpetuating one’s own biases
• Recogizing that culture is an inescapable component of being a fully recognized self

Ex: Client is a female, asian-american client. As a female euro-american therapist, I want to practicing cultural humility and self-awareness by cknowledging my own limitations and making it know that I am open to learning from my clients’ experiences in order to provide her with the best quality care.

Question 14

Defense Mechanisms

Answer 14

• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
• Unconscious strategies to cope with unpleasant feelings or situations that the mind has classified as unacceptable
• Can be automatic and reflexive
• Ego balancing the desires of the ID, SuperEGO and Reality.
• Problematic when defense mechanism lead to pathology representing as denial, repression, deflection and rationalization
• It is important to be able to recognizing when a client is using defense mechanisms bc you can benefit the therapeutic process if approached with curiosity, not criticism

Ex: Your client lost another job and denies that its even a problem by saying, “I’m too smart for that job anyway. Those guys are all losers and my boss was just jealous of me. I’m pretty sure thats why he fired me.”

Question 15

Externalizing Conversations

Answer 15

• Used in narratie therapy
• Important because it separates the person from the problem.
• Reframes internal probles to be an external entity, explores the influence of the problem, allows client to see themselves separate from the problem, allowing the client to “take charge” and gain power over their problem.

Ex:
Therapist: “It sounds like anger has been showing up a lot in your life lately. If anger were a separate thing from you, how would you describe it?”

Client: “It’s like a fire inside me. It just flares up, and I can’t control it. Its like I’m surrounded by its hot flame and just want to throw it at people.”

Question 16

Factor Analysis

Answer 16

• Statistical procedure used to categorize data that represents a cluster of related behaviors and tendencies
• Important bc it improves diagnostic accuracy and treatment outcomes
• from self-reported personaility measures to identify underlying/commom triats and identify patterns
• used in creating personality tests
• Used in creation of the Big 5 personality theory

Ex: A counselor administering a mental health questionnaire finds that clients who report low energy, sadness, and trouble sleeping often will also experience feelings of worthlessness and a lack of motivation. Factor analysis could reveal that these symptoms cluster together, representing an underlying depression factor rather than several separate issues.

Question 17

Fixation

Answer 17

• Coined by Freud as a dysfuntional internal working model and later expanded by Erik Erickon
• Used in psychoanalytic theory to describes when individuals get stuck at a certain stage of development due to unresolved conflict
• Important because it helps therapists understand how past experiences shape present behaviors and emotional challenges
• Especially relevant for populations dealing with childhood trauma, attachment issues and addictions

Ex: Jake is a 21yr old man who did not graduate highschool and is incapable of maintaining a job that supports him. Rather then working, Jake prefers attending electronic-dance music festivals which require taking long weekends off from work. Missing school for these festivals is the reason Jake did not graduate. Recently, Jake’s boss rejected his request for vacation. Jake responded by throwing a tantrum in the offce, hiding in the employee bathroom and refussing to return to work. When he does return to work, Jake sits at his desk chewing his nails while giving everyone the silent treatment.

Question 18

Gemeinschaftsgefuhl / Social Interest

Answer 18

• Belief from Adler’s Individual Psychology, that maintaining healthy social relationships is the goal of therapy and leads to a fulfilling and purpose-driven life
• Values Interdependence
• Important because it creates community engagement, emotional resilience, and altruism, which are linked to lower rates of depression and anxiety.
• Used to help clients develop a greater sense of connection, empathy, and cooperation with others, Gemeinschaftsgefuhl is relevant in populations dealing with social isolation, trauma, or self-esteem issues

Ex: Mahala lives in a Bluezone focused on shared resources, communal living, and spiritual interconnectedness. Members of her tribe do not commonly suffer from generalized mental dysfunctions and most elders live healthy lives well into their 90s.

Question 19

Genogram

Answer 19

A visual representation of a family tree used in therapy to explore family dynamics, relationships, and psychological patterns across generations.

By visually mapping out family influences, genograms help clients gain insight, break negative cycles, and develop healthier relationships.

Useful in marriage and family therapy, substance abuse, and trama counselors, genograms are important bc they help clients gain insight, break negative cycles, and develop healthier relationship patterns.

Ex: At a recovery center, the therapist has a client fill out a genogram. While doing so, the client realizes a history of addiction as well as depression in her family. By bringing awareness to this fact, it provides the client with hope knowing that certain aspects of her dependency and mental health may be hereditery.

Question 20

Multicultural Counseling

Answer 20

Multicultural Therapy (MCT) is founded on the concept that culture plays a central role in shaping an individual’s identity, experiences, and mental health.

MTC is importation bc it integrates cultural awareness, sensitivity, and competence into counseling practices to ensure therapy is effective and relevant for diverse populations.

Counselors must recognize their own biases, privileges, and cultural perspectives and educate themselves on the perspectives of their clients.

Ex: While visiting the college counseling center, an Indian student attending school in the US expresses that they are struggling to assimilate to the standard US lifestyle on a big college campus. During this intake process, the counselor will want to modify therapeutic approaches to align with a client’s cultural values and communication styles.

Question 21

Neo-Freudian

Answer 21

Works built upon by Freud’s followers like Adler, Jung, Horney, Erikson, de-emphasized biological drives and placed greater importance on social, cultural, and interpersonal factors in personality development.

Important bc it expanded Freud’s theories beyond biology and childhood experiences, making mental health treatment more adaptable, inclusive, and relevant to diverse populations across all development stages.

Ex: A 30-year-old woman struggling with self-doubt, social anxiety, and fear of rejection in relationships would benefit from exploring her early-childhood experiences and how they shaped her develoment into a people pleaser as she works to build self-worth and ways of better navegating relationships as an adult.

Question 22

Narrative Therapy

Answer 22

• A more recently developed approach by Whtie and Epstonthat is collaborative and client-centered
• Helps people reshape their personal stories to externalize the problem: people are not the problem - the problem is the problem.
• By identifying dominant vs. alternative stories and exploring unique outcomes this is important bc it helps individuals reshape their identities and break free from harmful self-beliefs.

Effective in treating trauma, depression, anxiety, and self-esteem issues.

Ex: A recently divorced father feels like a failure bc he couldn’t make his wife happy and save his marriage. The therapist helps him build an alternative story that during a very difficult time in his life, he worked to repaire his marriage and even while that did not successed, he is showing resiliance and has maintained being a wonderful father and friend throughout this difficult time.

Question 23

Person-Situation Debate

Answer 23

• A common debate between personality theorists as to whether personalities are consistent across situations, or does behavior vary according to the situation?
• Knowledge of this debate allows the clinician to understand how different personalities adapt/behave or remain steady and is useful for case conceptualization

Ex: Marc is generally introverted, however he behaves differently in a professional setting taking on a strong, almost dominate leadership role, due to the influence of the situation. In this case, the situation demands confidence, and thus the person behaves in a way that fits the context, even if their typical behavior is more reserved.

Question 24

Potentially Harmful Treatments

Answer 24

• Treatments that can be harmful or ineffective when used inappropriately or without sufficient evidence of success.
• May exacerbate symptoms, harm the therapeutic relationship, and may cause serious long-term psychological and emotional damage
• It is cruitial for therapist to avoid PHTs because they lack empirical evidence and breach ethical guidelines.

Ex: A homosexual teen is treated with aversion therapy and receives mild electric shocks, in hopes of creating an aversion to his same-sex attraction.

Question 25

Psychodynamic Theory

Answer 25

• Descendent from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, developed by Adler and Jung
• The goal of psychodynamic theory is to bring the unconscious impulses causing problems in the patient’s life to the surface
• Therapist serves as a guide, facilitator and interpreter
• While it can be critizied for being too focused on childhood experiences and lacking empirical evidence, psychodynamic therory is important bc the idea that mental health issues often have deep, underlying causes rooted in the unconscious, aims to help clients understand the source of conflicts, leading to greater self-awareness and creating change in maladaptive behavior patterns.

Ex: During therapy, a man recalls misconduct by a Priest at his church and assocites that time period to when he started disliking school and displaying anti-social behaviors. Therapist works to create a safe space for the client to explore these feelings of distrust and anger as he bring unconscious material into awareness of how these experiences created patterns of behavior that still impact him today.

Question 26

Psychoeducation

Answer 26

• Process of educating a client about psychological concepts, your diagnoses, the relationships between cognition-emotion-behaviors and suggested treatment options.
• This is important for forming a collaborative atmospher and lays foundsation for a strong theraputic-relationship

Ex: Colleen presents to therapy for generalized anxiety experiencing constant worry about her health and friendships. Therapist teaches Colleen that anxiety can serve a purpose in protect her but when left unfiltered may lead to fixating thoughts and catastrophizing situations. The therpist goes on to expaine that the process of learning to recognize these feelings takes time and how by working together to create a plan that feel safe to Colleen, she will grow to feel more in control of her daily outcomes.

Question 27

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

Answer 27

• A cognitive therapy developed by Ellis states that distress is not caused by events themselves but by one’s beliefs/judgments about the events
• Goal is to challenge irrational beliefs and replace them with more rational beliefs
• Could be considered confrontational by its early blunt and challenging approch. Today incorporates WEG skills becoming more flexible.

Ex: Lisa seeks therapy after an argument with boss at work. He explains to the therapist that she believes she will lose her job and have to move in with her parents because of this argument. Therapist practices REBT and challenges Lisa’s thought about having to move in with her paretns and helps her replace it with “My boss and I disagree in this topic but I am a valued ee and this is no reason for me to lose my job. Even if I did lose my job, I am a skilled person who is able to find another job and will not have to move in with my parents”.

Question 28

Schema or Core Belief

Answer 28

• A schema, or core belief, is a deeply held cognitive framework that shapes how individuals interpret the world, themselves, and others
• Often the underlying belief that sparks an automatic thought
• Schemas are important in therapy bc identifying and modifying (negative) core beliefs helps clients develop (healthier) perspectives and coping strategies
• Humans tend to seek out information that support previously constructed schemas making Schema Therapy useful for clients with depression, anxiety and trama-focused intervention.

Ex: Liz, 45 yr old woman, seeks therapy due to intense anxiety in romantic relationships leading to aggressively clingy behaviors and intense emotional distress. Liz shares that her mother died by suicide when Liz was a teenager and her father was gone a lot with the military. Every romantic relationship Liz has had ends with her partner cheating or walking out. Liz believes she is unlovable which is why everyone always leaves her.

Question 29

Self-Actualization

Answer 29

• Term coined by Maslow founder of Maslow’s Higharchy of Needs. Self-Actualization is the peek.
• Refers to when a person has realized and fullfilled their potential and are living life according to their best and truest self re talents and capabilities
• A goal of therapy is the journey and growth with SA being the ideal althought it can be a moving target and rare to achieve
• Idea could be criticized that needs don’t follow a hierarchy and we never reach a perfect self, however, this sort of humanistic perspective is important bc it focuses on the development of healthy individuals

Ex: Client explains that as she approaches her 50s, she no longer feels the need to compair herself to others or compete for attention and praise. She feels a sence of pride and is content with her place in the world. She reprots having close friendships, a career that challenges her and several hobbies that allower her to be creative and connect with the earth. She feels a sens of purpose, life satisfaction and an alignment with her authentic self.

Question 30

Self-Concept

Answer 30

• Basis of Person Centered Therapy developed by Carl Rogers
• Explored to understand how a person views themselves and how these perceptions influence emotions, behaviors, and relationships.
• Important bc it helps clients reshape their self-concept by addressing negative self-beliefs, promoting self-acceptance, and fostering personal growth - essential for mental well-being, - Useful with adolescents, individuals with low self-esteem, trauma survivors, and those struggling with identity issues bc negative or distorted self-view can contribute to issues like low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression.

Ex: Your client is a 22-year-old college student struggling with low self-esteem and identity confusion. She frequently compares herself to others, believing she is not smart or capable enough, which leads to self-doubt, anxiety, and social withdrawal. Together you explore how her highly critical parents may have contributed to her self-view and work to replace these negative beliefs with more balanced, self-compassionate thoughts.

Question 31

Self-Efficacy

Answer 31

• Concept in Bandura’s social learning theory
• Refers to one’s beliefs in their ability to succeed at certain tasks or in certain situations
• This influences how people approach situations
• If an individual has low self-efficacy, they are less likely to attempt a task or enter a new situation

Ex:

Question 32

Self-Monitoring

Answer 32

• A type of observation in which clients monitor their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
• Self-monitoring is especially useful in low-frequency or private behaviors/events
• Self-monitoring is subject to reactivity of monitoring in which the person changes the behavior (for better or for worse) unconsciously because they are monitoring the behavior

Ex:

Question 33

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

Answer 33

• Psychotherapy that focuses on problems in the here and now
• Has specific goals that the client views as important to achieve
• Both the therapy and the implementation of solutions occur in a limited time
• strong emphasis on solution-focus and not problem-focused

Ex:

Question 34

Systems Theory

Answer 34

• An interdisciplinary conceptual framework focusing on the wholeness, pattern, relationship, hierarchical order, integration, and organization of phenomena
• In this framework, a client is viewed holistically in context and understands that there is an interaction between “components” of the system

Ex: While doing family therapy, a therapist works from a systems theory approach. The therapist assesses many of the interactions between all family members to understand what is maintaining the problems within the family rather than focusing on the responsibility of a single individual in maintaining the problems in the family. Dad drinking, rather than focusing on dad’s drinking therapist focuses on mother fighting with the daughter and how that makes the father want to drink as well.

Question 35

Trait

Answer 35

• An enduring personality characteristic that describes or determines an individual’s behavior across a range of situations
• Typically assessed via self-report/identification
• Most commonly involve the 5 traits found in the Big 5 Personality Model (OCEAN)
• research suggests that when clients perceive similarly to their therapists personality traits it results in a stronger therapeutic relationship

Ex: A mother brings her twins into therapy because one is outgoing and social and the other is shy. The mother expresses concern. The therapist explains that each person has a different combination of traits, even twins. The therapist goes on to explain that one twin has a higher degree of extraversion than the other twin.

Question 36

Triangulation

Question 37

Warmth, Empathy, Genuineness (WEG)

Answer 37

• Non-negotiable therapeutic conditions designed by Carl Rogers
• Stands for warmth, empathy and genuineness
• Warmth refers to the therapist’s unconditional positive regard and acceptance of client’s emotions
• Empathy refers to working to fully understand a client’s internal frame of reference and “stepping into their worldview”
• Genuineness refers transparency from the therapist and all lack of judgment

Ex: Therapist: “I’m really glad you’re here today, Sarah. I can see how hard this is for you, and I genuinely want to help. Lets take our time and go at a pace that feels comfortable for you. Your feeling supported in this room and during our time together is what is most important.”