PSYC-501 Principles of Cognitive and Behavioral Change

Question 1

ABA or Reversal design

Answer 1

an experimental design (single case) consisting of an initial baseline phase, an intervention phase, and a return to baseline conditions by withdrawing the independent variable to see whether responding “reverses” to levels observed in the initial baseline phase; CONS - may not be ethical due to removal of treatment intervention, or skill may not be able to be “unlearned”, not generalizable;

Question 2

Acceptance and Commitment therapy

Answer 2

3rd generation of CBT; uses acceptance and mindfulness to increase psychological flexibility. Psychopathology comes from experiential avoidance and over-control: unwilling to remain in direct contact with painful experiences, but paradoxically the process of avoiding yields more distress. decreases ANXIETY; objective is not elimination of difficult feelings rather it is to be present with what life brings us and to move forward valued behavior; used with addictions, depression, anxiety
• Phase 1:
- Creative Hopelessness: challenging client’s current solution strategies in order to develop new strategies that are not beset by ineffective rule systems
• Phase 2
- Undermine the control agenda: focus on control as the problem which leads to unworkable outcomes through emotional avoidance and escape. Alternative is acceptance of painful, private experiences
• Phase 3: Cognitive Diffusion: teach client to see thoughts and feelings for what they are, rather than what they advertise them to be, undermine fusion of self and language
• Phase 4
- Discover and Diffuse the Self: undermine the conceptualized self by creating self-awareness and self as perspective w/ flexible contexts
• Phase 5:
- Valuing: teach importance of value-based living and determine value-based life direction
• Phase 6:
- Willingness and Commitment: putting goals and values into action. Refuting barriers as they are encountered

Question 3

Anxiety/fear hierarchy

Answer 3

part of systemized desensitization. A generated list of feared/phobic situations with the client; generally 10-15 things. Arranged on the strength of disturbance (SUDS rating) from lowest to highest.

Question 4

Assets

Answer 4

What the person does well that can be systematically used to overcome behavioral problems.
ignored in traditional DSM assessment; What behaviors are in their repertoire?

Question 5

Automatic thought

Answer 5

A type of cognitive distortion. spontaneous, immediate thoughts that appear plausible; usually refer to situations or events which are increasing levels of abstraction e.g. dichotomous reasoning, personalization, emotional reasoning; ANTs - addressed in cognitive restructuring (logic); can be maladaptive and persistent - need to come up with alternative thoughts; help cause/maintain depression/anxiety

Question 6

Behavior Activation Therapy

Answer 6

based on Lewhinson’s theory of depression in which low frequency of engagement in positively reinforcing behaviors causes depression; occurs via monitoring (1), scheduling activities (2), graded exposure (3); is often used initially and if additional therapy is needed cognitive restructuring; therapist helps create opportunities for reinforcing behavior. Implementation can be summed up with ACTION; (A)ssess the activity, what they want, how will it affect depression, (C)hoose to participate, (T)ry the behavior chose, (I)ntegrate new activities into daily routine, (O)bserve the result (did it make things better or worse?) and finally (N)ever give up.

Question 7

Behavior therapy

Answer 7

1st wave CBT. Changing behaviors via therapist teaching client positive and reinforcing behaviors (instead of relying on unconscious thought) –

Procedures that change behavior consequences (reinforcers/punishment) and stimulus conditions which elicit a bx response.

reaction to psychodynamic; functional analysis; behavioral analysis - ABCPA; Skinner/Pavlov; classical/operant conditioning

ex.
behavioral activation is an example of BT- assigning a client to engage in reinforcing behaviors to promote fulfilling habits

Question 8

Chaining

Answer 8

operant conditioning; A sequence of discriminate stimulus, responses, and positive reinforcements, each response produces a discriminate stimulus for the next response
ex/ skill development in learning a dance

Question 9

Classical/respondent conditioning

Answer 9

developed by Ivan Pavlov. A type of condition which is learned by repeated pairings; a previously neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a respondent (reflex or emotional response). Can also be a discriminative stimulus signaling a response which is followed by a reinforcing stimulus; the response is controlled by the consequences.

two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response

If you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already triggers an unconditioned response (UR) that neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response.

PHASES: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, reconditioning

Ex: In Ivan Pavlov’s experiment, UCS (food) UCR (salivation) - pair UCS with CS (tone) - CS (tone) CR (salivation)

Question 10

Cognitive fusion

Answer 10

associated with ACT. The state of mind in which we are so fused with our thoughts that they appear to be synonymous with fact; not being able to see thoughts as thoughts. recognize the thoughts and use logic - 5 senses. verbal regulation of behavior primarily by rules and “reason giving.”

Question 11

Cognitive restructuring

Answer 11

therapeutic technique in cognitive therapy; Client is encouraged to identify cognitive distortions that are maladaptive, challenge the validity of these distortions, and explore more adaptive alternatives. Monitoring/identifying/categorizing dysfunctional automatic thoughts (cognitive distortions) which are viewed as hypotheses in need of empirical evaluation (not viewed as truth)

—-not on card—
- Crucial questions during cognitive restructuring
• What is evidence for/against this belief?
• What are alternative interpretations of this event?
• What are the implications, if the belief is correct?
- Progress from events → automatic thoughts →assumptions → schema: identify/categorize and question
- Guided discovery and Socratic inquiry: using leading questions

Question 12

Cognitive therapy

Answer 12

type of therapy developed by Beck
Focus on cognitions as the origin of maladaptive behavior, thoughts and emotions, Therapies target cognitive changes as necessary to develop more adaptive emotional and behavioral responses
• Assumption - pathology results from cognitive distortions, Cognitions are related to behavior, Cognitive activity is potentially observable, it can be monitored, counted, altered, Client is considered expert and collaborator
• Two main components are BA and cognitive restructuring
• Levels of cognitive distortions (triggered by event)
- (1st level) Automatic thoughts: spontaneous thoughts that appear plausible e.g. dichotomous reasoning, personalization, emotional reasoning “I feel this way… it must be so”
- (2nd level) Assumptions: abstract, generalized rules e.g. “I must be perfect in all endeavors”, “ Everyone should like me”, “ I must be on guard at all times”
- (3rd level) Schemas: cognitive structures (patterns of thinking) that organize and process info e.g. negative cognitive triad (self, world, future), cognitions differ in anxiety, depression, OCD
• use treatment to help people recognize their patterns of thought
• Goal: aid pt in dealing w/ problems in living
• Focus: more on present vs. less on past, pathology and assets, objective data vs. projective tests, interventions and their evaluation
• General Process: behavioral analysis of problem, select target behaviors w/ measurement, apply interventions, determine their effectiveness

• (Theory) we all have deep cognitive structures called schemas that enable us to process incoming information and interpret our experiences in a meaningful way. Symptoms of psychopathology (emotions, cognitions, and behaviors) result when pathological schemas are activated by stressful events.
• (Therapy) treats psychopathology by intervening to change the automatic thoughts, behaviors, and schemas that cause unpleasant emotions and to change the relationships among them.

Question 13

Conditioned and unconditioned responses

Answer 13

Found in classical/respondent conditioning.

Level

• respondents/reflexes/typically micro: movement of muscles/secretion of glands
• operants/typically macro: walking, talking, writing, thinking

Source
-overt/external
-covert/internal
What of behavior & not products/results: ex. Studying vs earning a grade
——————

the unlearned response to a stimulus. In other words, it is any original response that occurs naturally and in the absence of conditioning (e.g., salivation in response to the presentation of food).

Conditioned response refers to responses elicited by a conditioned stimulus, due to repeated pairings.

Question 14

Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

Answer 14

US: stimuli that elicits an unconditioned response.
ex. gunshot elicits fight/ flight

CS: a once neutral stimulus that becomes conditioned overtime due to pairing with CR.
ex. fireworks (NS) elicit similar sound to gunshot (US). and now elicit fight/ flight

• classical/respondent conditioning
• stimulus: any event in the environment

Question 15

Cue exposure therapy

Answer 15

third generation exposure - basically an ERP for substance use - exposure to specific situations and cognitions (CS) [e.g. seeing an ashtray smoking] that induce cravings/urges; initial sessions - repeated cue exposure - cravings will subside extinguish ability of CS CR; later sessions - cue exposure with coping/social skills as alternative responses

Question 16

Decision-Balance Matrix

Answer 16

technique used with motivational interviewing and often used in working with ambivalence in people who are engaged in behaviors that are harmful to their health; therapist asks the client to list the pros (benefits) and cons (costs) of making a change versus not making a change; the goal being for the client to “tip” the balance in favor of the benefits to making a change. This is usually done in a 2x2 grid.

Question 17

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)

Answer 17

developed by Marsha Linehan; type of CBT that includes mindfulness, skills training, and humanistic; usually done by consultation team but also includes individual therapy and skills acquisition group; under theoretical behaviorism and mediation model.
Involves changing patterns of behavior that are NOT helpful (ex: self-harm, suicidal thinking) and learning about what triggers those behaviors and how to assess coping skills to apply to avoid undesired reactions. Assumes person is simply lacking the skills or influenced by positive or negative reinforcement that interfere with their ability to function appropriately. Initially developed to treat people with borderline personality disorder and chronically suicidal individuals;
Emotional dysregulation results from high emotional temperament style and difficulty modulating emotions. Dialectical- synthesis develops from combining a thesis and antithesis; Thesis (acceptance and validation)/antithesis (change) - synthesis of that is “I accept that I need to change”

Question 18

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

Answer 18

aka DRI (incompatible behavior); operant conditioning; behaviors must compete; typically used when trying to decrease the frequency of an undesirable behavior; the “other” behavior is often incompatible with the undesired behavior. Often the most effective way to decrease an undesired behavior.

Question 19

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 19

aka cue, signal; operant conditioning; A stimulus (negative or positive) previously associated with a reinforcer (negative or positive) which signals that a response will produce the positive reinforcer or avoid the negative reinforcer

Question 20

Efficacy expectations

Answer 20

Bandura; prediction that one can perform a given behavior

• locus of control, health locus of control, interpersonal trust
• fundamental to behavior change
• combination of acquisition (attention/retention) and performance (reproduction/reinforcement) necessary to achieve changes in efficacy
• self-efficacy can be low or high (how does efficacy influence behavior?)
• what you expect affects how many behaviors you attempt

Ex: weight loss - low = not confident can exercise effectively, high = confident that can go to the gym and work out 30 minutes a day

Question 21

Empirically supported therapy/treatment

Answer 21

criteria for EST -
met stringent scientific criteria: 1) at least 2 randomized controlled trials (RCT) comparing treatment to placebo and/or established treatment, a large # of single case experimental design studies, or meta-analysis; 2) well-defined treatment protocol that can be independently replicated usually following a manual; 3) independent investigators reach similar conclusions; form basis of evidence based practice

Question 22

Escape/Avoidance

Answer 22

behavior that occurs to avoid negative reinforcement; behavior terminates an aversive stimulus; behavior increases in frequency.
escape behaviors are learned behaviors - can learn to avoid through recognizing the pre-aversive stimulus

Question 23

Exposure with Response Prevention (ERP)

Answer 23

(ERP) exposure to fearful cues; prevent escape/avoidance (behavioral & cognitive).
Obtain detailed description of the situation and context of the problem, define explicit behavior, thoughts, and feelings, explore consequences. Exposure (can be graded or massed), prevent escape or avoidance during these exposures, review coping mechanisms. 2nd generation of exposure therapies; in vivo/direct & indirect

Ex: PTSD trauma narrative; panic exposure to activities/situations that elicit physical reactions (increased HR, breathing) & cognitions (fear of losing control, embarrassment) & prevent avoidance Pt. modeling in vivo

Question 24

Extrinsic and Intrinsic reinforcers

Answer 24

consequences that occur after behavior and increase frequency of behavior

• extrinsic: external consequences of activity (product)
• e.g. working for money
• intrinsic: inherent in the activity (when you are doing the act, it is reinforcing, NOT the product of the act); more effective at maintaining behaviors and goal should be to fade from extrinsic to intrinsic; self-motivated
• e.g. “starving artists”, teachers; reading a book

Question 25

Functional analysis

Answer 25

the primary way by which behaviorists identify and assess the purpose and meaning of a client’s behavior through the identification of the environmental stimuli that control the behavior, when then allows for the creation of a plan to increase, decrease, or modify the target behaviors. Typically done using the ABCPA model where the behavior (B) is explicitly identified and measurably defined, the circumstances that precede the behavior (antecedents A) and follow it (consequences C)are considered. As well as the client’s person variables (P) such as how the encode, feel and thier self talk along with thier assests (A), things they do well.

Question 26

Generalization and Discrimination

Answer 26

phenomenon observed in operant/classical(respondent) conditioning

(g)Control of performance by stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus in respondent conditioning or discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning
stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus and discriminate stimulus will control the response

(d)control of performance by specific discriminative stimulus or conditioned stimulus only; counterpart to generalization - first learn to generalize then learn to discriminate

Question 27

Exposure therapy

Answer 27

Primarily target fears, phobias, and responses to trauma.
Focus: primarily on respondents (anxiety) and avoidance as target behaviors including overt and covert escape and avoidance behavior and Physiological/emotional reactivity (CRs to CSs)
Conceptual model: initially based on respondent conditioning, later expanded to include operant conditioning, modeling, and cognition
Rationale: must elicit fear by exposure to feared stimuli in order to reduce the fear via extinction process, cognitive restructuring-processing and higher self-efficacy
Intervention procedure: expose pt to fearful stimulus/event, allow physiological reactivity to abate, prevent escape and avoidance responses. Begin at lowest SUDS rating and build on that.
-Reciprocal inhibition & graded exposure not necessary to lower fear in systematic desensitization
-Simple exposure is sufficient/necessary to lower fear
-Cognitive processing is very helpful, and many think that it is a crucial component
TYPES: imagined/indirect, Imagined/direct, in vivo/indirect (graded tasks), in vivo/direct

• Imagined and indirect

• Less frightening
• Less resistance
• Coupled with relaxation and pleasant imagery
• Prelude to in vivo exposure
• Slower results

• In vivo and direct

• More fearful
• Perhaps more resistance
• Longer sessions maybe be necessary
• (sometimes) Subsequent to imagined exposure
• Faster results

Question 28

Iatrogenic effects

Answer 28

refers to any effect on a person, resulting from any activity of one or more persons acting as healthcare professionals or promoting products or services as beneficial to health, that does NOT support a goal of the person affected; making things worse through treatment; inadvertent; suggestive therapeutic techniques

Question 29

Imaginal exposure

Answer 29

A form of exposure therapy. Can be indirect/graded or direct. Occurs when the feared stimulus is not physically manifested; instead exposure is done via imagining scenes or speaking about the event repeatedly. Opposite of in vivo. Some types of phobias can only be done with imaginal exposure.

Question 30

In vivo exposure

Answer 30

a type of exposure therapy. Can be direct or indirect/graded. Opposite of Imaginal exposure. Usually has quicker results; using actual objects/situation in safe environment

• In vivo and direct
- More fearful
- Perhaps more resistance
- Longer sessions maybe be necessary
- (sometimes) Subsequent to imagined exposure
- Faster results
Ex:

Question 31

Learned helplessness

Answer 31

a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. exposure to frequent (bombarded) uncontrollable Sr- produces apathy, passivity, depression. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression.

Question 32

Learning-performance distinction

Answer 32

concept in behaviorism that stresses the difference between the learning of a behavior and actual performance of the behavior; the learning of a behavior or skill doesn’t necessarily require the performance or practice of the behavior; learning isn’t just the performance of a learned behavior - it is a change in the ability and potential to do the behavior

Ex: For example, imagine an individual who has never played basketball before. They watch a basketball game on television and learn the main concept of the game which is getting the ball into the hoop. This behavior is now learned but remains latent until the person actually plays basketball for the first time and shoots the ball into the hoop. The learning-performance distinction show the difference between learning (watching the basketball game and grasping the concept of the behavior) and performance (actually performing the behavior).

Question 33

Meta-Analysis

Answer 33

a study of studies that combines the results of multiple studies. Analysis of effect sizes from many studies that satisfy certain criteria. (e.g. random assignment, control group, blinded, etc.)

• Effect Size: A measure of the strength of relationship versus the control. Can be expressed in z scores or percent of variance accounted for small = .25, medium = .5, large = 1.0+

Ex: comparison of studies measuring peer influence on substance use in adolescence

Question 34

Mindfulness

Answer 34

therapeutic technique often used as a therapy; third wave therapy; originates from Buddhism and eastern meditation. encourages client to accept and come to terms with thoughts/behaviors and internal/external experiences in the present moment and to be aware of them without judging/believing them, to accept them as they are. Adopting an orientation to moment-to-moment experiences that is characterized by openness, curiosity, and acceptance. All experiences are considered initially as relevant, worthy of observation, and accepted. Applications include stress management, stress-related illnesses (pain, headache, etc) anxiety, depression, eating disorders, etc. CBT use: no specific goal, task is to sit still and observe, no striving to relax or change thoughts, emotions, behavior, decrease pain, etc
Exercises:
-Goal is not to induce relaxation but foster non-judgmental observation of current state
-Mind as conveyer belt: experience all sensations/thoughts as they come along, observe, label, categorize, no analysis/evaluation
-Mind as sky: clouds are feelings and thoughts
-Breadth: observe in and out

Question 35

Modeling

Answer 35

vicarious/observational learning - Learning observationally through watching someone else complete the action; accounts for the bulk of human learning. modeling phases/processes: attentional/retention/reproduction/feedback; modeling effects: learning of novel behavior (inhibitory/disinhibitory), facilitation
Bandura and Bobo doll experiment;

Ex: video games - violence; parental discipline - childhood aggression; pro-social behavior

Question 36

Motivational interviewing

Answer 36

client-centered therapy for eliciting behavior change by helping clients explore and resolve ambivalence; developed by Miller. Developed to increase ETOH. abusers involvement in Rx program, it is now incorporated into many CBT formats in a wide variety of settings
Many “enter” therapy ambivalent over changing, MI increases motivation for change by exploring/resolving ambivalence (resistance).
Referred to as interviewing because it involves listening/questioning rather than therapy/techniques. considers motivation for change as a state not a trait. Main goal: increase cognitive dissonance by encouraging the client to highlight the discrepancy between current behavior and personal goals/values. Resistance is natural part, viewed as opportunity to enhance motivation, not to be attacked. applied in 2 phases; building motivation for change, and strengthening commitment to change.
techniques include; expressing empathy, develop discrepancies, roll with resistance, support self efficacy, decision balance matrix.

Therapist: empathic listening, doesn’t extol merits of behavior change, actively elicits +/- of status quo vs. change from patient. Patient: hear themselves state (+/- ) of both positions and articulate costs/benefits for change

Stages of change: pre-contemplative, contemplative, preparation, action, maintenance

Question 37

Multiple Baseline design

Answer 37

a type of experimental design where either a single participant is observed for multiple behaviors/independent variables or multiple participants are observed for the same behavior/variable in sequence; useful as an alternative research method to reversal designs to avoid ethical questions of removing treatment and want to eliminate carry over effects, but still lacking in generalizability; across situation/participants/behavior

Question 38

Negative reinforcement

Answer 38

operant conditioning; Skinner;
response that removes an aversive stimulus (consequence/event); behavior increases

Ex: applying sunscreen to avoid/prevent sunburn; drinking to avoid withdraw symptoms; OCD - compulsive behaviors are reinforced to remove/avoid thoughts

Question 39

Operant conditioning

Answer 39

coined by Skinner and based on Thorndike’s law of effect; Behaviorism; changing behavior through use of reinforcement given after desired response; Skinner; types of conditioning; positive (doing something and receiving the desired outcome/reward), negative (doing something and having an aversive event removed). Both increase responding. Punishment (presentation of an aversive stimulus to eliminate undesirable behavior) decreases response. Schedule of reinforcement.

Ex: Joey was 13 years old when he started smoking at school. Every time he smoked he was invited to hang out with the popular kids and had a fun time talking with them. The experience was rewarding and Joey was positively reinforced by his peers for smoking.

Question 40

Outcome expectations

Answer 40

Mischel’s person variables and Bandura’s social learning theory; what a person believes will happen; prediction/belief that a behavior will produce a negative or positive stimulus; what will happen? The consequences of behavior; expectations of self, others, systems

ex/ if stop smoking for two weeks, you will improve your lung health/overall health - this can improve self efficacy

Question 41

Outcome vs process research

Answer 41

outcome; assesses the effectiveness of a treatment in producing change or determining the extent to which a treatment is better than the control treatment.

process; shows how the outcome or impact was achieved or the development of this particular treatment to determine which variables of the treatment are effective. aka a dismantling study

Question 42

Parent-child training therapy

Answer 42

family intervention therapy with goals of improving the parent-child relationship and the parent’s behavior management skills by the therapist teaching parents to work with their child positively, set appropriate limits, to act consistently, be fair with their discipline decisions, and to establish more appropriate expectations regarding the child while teaching the child better social skills;
ideally strengthening the relationship improves the child’s behavior;
accomplished in 2 phases:
1) child directed interactions to increase parental responsiveness and establish a secure and nurturing relationship
2) parent directed interactions works on improving parental limit setting and consistency in discipline.
-Child target behaviors: high rates of opposition, defiance, whining, hitting, yelling, non-compliance
-Parental problem behaviors: excessively critical, threatening, and nagging behavior; low level of Sr+ for appropriate behavior

Question 43

Positive reinforcement

Answer 43

behavior theory/therapy; operant conditioning; increase behavior due to reward/desirable stimulus occurring immediately after behavior

Question 44

Premack Principle

Answer 44

reinforcing a target behavior by awarding some privilege to engage in a more desired behavior afterward.

high frequency behavior (HFB) can function as a positive reinforcer; want low frequency behavior (LFB) to increase and function as intrinsic reinforcer; useful in natural environments;
process: to increase the frequency of a low frequency, desired behavior (LFB), arrange for a more frequently occurring behavior (HFB) to be contingent upon it; HFB is withheld until LFB is performed

Ex: do your homework, then you can play video games

Question 45

Problem Solving Therapy

Answer 45

D’Zurilla & Goldfried
a cognitive–behavioral intervention geared to improve an individual’s ability to cope with stressful life experiences. The underlying assumption of this approach is that symptoms of psychopathology can often be understood as the negative consequences of ineffective or maladaptive coping.

Problem identification and description:
-clarify problem, identify obstacles, determine significance of problem for overall functioning, ABCPA
Identification of goals:
-set goals, review antecedents, determine consequences of goals
Generate solutions to achieve goals:
-be creative, no criticism, withhold judgment, free wheel, entertain even bizarre solutions, no stone left unturned, more is better, refine and integrate
Decision making
-Identify consequences/outcomes (short & long-term) of solutions, cost-benefit of each, rank-order solutions- ex. Probability of success
Implementation of solution/follow-up
-Carrying out the plan and monitoring progress

Question 46

Primary/Secondary Reinforcer

Answer 46

• Primary reinforcers typically depend on deprivation; Food, water, temperature, etc
• secondary reinforcers acquire their value by association with primary reinforcers; control a great number of performances. Can be simple (approval, acceptance, etc) or generalized (tokens, money, etc)

Question 47

Punishment

Answer 47

coined by Skinner; Behaviorism; operant conditioning; presentation of an aversive stimulus that follows a response will decrease the response; to eliminate undesirable behavior.; punishment (tells what not to do) should only be used in conjunction with teaching or reinforcing appropriate behaviors/responses (tells what to do); PROS can help decrease an undesirable behavior; CONS behavior is not forgotten but suppressed, can increase aggression and fear, doesn’t teach desirable behavior. This may increase bad behaviors, and may become reinforcing to the punisher.

Question 48

Reactivity of Self-Monitoring

Answer 48

account of how the operation of recording interacts or reacts with the problem behavior; makes clients more aware of and might increase behavior; the (probable) interaction of the measurement operation (taking a test or scale, self- or other person monitoring, etc.) with the behavior being measured; the measurement may/may not interact w/ the behavior; MUST be very careful - solution? Focus on monitoring/recording appropriate “good” behavior instead of inappropriate “bad” behavior

Ex: Counselor sees Joe who complains of depression. Joe completes a depression scale prior to the session and his score is not in the clinical range. During the session Joe also minimizes the extent of depression. Counselor has him monitor depressive and “fun” episodes for 1/wk. and there are many more depressive vs. fun times. In light of the difference in the scale and self-monitoring, counselor decides to re-administer the depression scale to Joe, requesting that he not try to either minimize or maximize his responses.

Question 49

Reciprocal determinism**

Answer 49

Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura which states that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.
P-B-E
affects behaviors and personality development; illustrates reciprocal determinism outlined by Bandura; Person, Behavior, Environment where P, B, E (overriding conceptual framework) influence one another/interact with each other; If….(situation-E), Then….(activation of specific person variable units-P)→ specific behavior pattern-B

Question 50

Reinforcer

Answer 50

in operant conditioning, an event in the environment or stimulus provided as a response to a behavior in order to increase the behavior; the ability of the reinforce to increase a behavior is through the addition of something pleasant (positive) or the removal of something unpleasant (negative) in response to a behavior; typically a reinforcer is more successful in small immediate contingencies as opposed to large delayed ones; schedules of reinforcement; positive and negative reinforcer; primary - food/water; secondary - praise, tokens, money

Ex: The counselor used a positive, secondary reinforcer (star stickers) to reward her 6-year-old client each time he successfully completed homework. The counselor noticed after implementation of the reinforcer, the client consistently completed homework each week and looked forward to receiving the sticker.

Question 51

Schedules of reinforcement-FR, FI, VR, VI, CRF Schema

Answer 51

operant condition; contingencies describing the relationship between a behavior and its consequences; this can be a fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval, where ratio is related to amount and interval is related to time. Fixed means the timing does not change, variable means it is flexible.variable schedules have higher/stable rates of responding and higher resistance to extinction

Ex:

• continuous (CRF, FR/1) reinforcer delivered after every response
• fixed ratio (FR/20) reinforcer delivered after 20 responses
• variable ratio (VR/50) reinforcer delivered after 50 responses on average
• fixed interval (FI/1 week) reinforcer delivered every week (ex: paycheck every Frid

Question 52

Self-efficacy and Outcome Expectations

Answer 52

Outcome expectancies: prediction that behavior will produce positive or negative reinforcement; “What will happen?” what will happen? [part of person variables]

• If I stop drinking so much, study more, am kind, etc.
• prediction that a behavior will produce Sr-/Sr+
• if I do this will good things happen

Self-efficacy: prediction that one can perform a given behavior; self-efficacy is fundamental to behavior change; “Can I do this?” high SE- attempt difficulty tasks, persist, calm vs. anxious, organized; low SE- question their competency; Can I control my drinking, study time??, situational specific [part of person variables]
*I can do this

Bandura, Michel, etc

Question 53

Self-Reinforcement

Answer 53

(very important) performance is evaluated against a standard

• client evaluates and reinforced self for behavior
• overt or covert Sr+ or Sr-
• How much reinforcement?; You are not their personal cheerleader let them tell you how they did

Ex: “Wow, I did that all by myself!”; feeling of pride, accomplishment

Question 54

Shaping

Answer 54

in operant conditioning; to establish a novel behavior not in the repertoire, reinforce in successive approximations to it

ex/ to teach a pigeon how to peck a spot on the wall, reinforce getting closer to the wall, then pecking the wall around that spot, then for only pecking the spot on the wall.

Question 55

Social skills training

Answer 55

social skills - ability to engage in behavior that is positively reinforced by others and minimize behavior that is punished by others
Components of social skills: eye contact, facial expressions, attention to others, listening, appropriate affect expression, gestures, speech duration/silence/latency, compliments, positive statements

Basic assumption: psychopathology results from ineffective social behavior &/or problem solving that yields negative consequences and a self-defeating pattern of behavior. Therefore, social skills training develop targeted skills and plan for these skills to generalize to other social situations. 1st target overt behavior, then shift to person variables.

3 phases: 1) Assessment; includes clinical interview ABCPA; Behavioral assessment; self report (scales, self monitoring)
2) Situations and responses • Situational specificity:
- In the course of social development, we acquire abilities to perform in specific situations which may/may not generalize to other situations
- In therapy, develop targeted skills and plan for these skills to generalize to other social situations
• Response mode:
- First target overt behaviors in the course of Social Skills Training, then shift to:
- Person variables (Mischel): affective/emotional responses, encoding, planning, rehearsal, problem solving, goals, evaluative standards
3) Therapeutic interventions; response definition, behavioral rehearsal, modeling, feedback/coaching/instruction (shaping), homework (try it out)

Question 56

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 56

a phenomenon of learning and memory which was first seen in classical (Pavlovian) conditioning and refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay; after extinction & time interval, CS again is able to elicit CR; extinction is not the same as unlearning; strong positive or negative association with behavior stays in memory - not forgotten

Question 57

Spontaneous remission

Answer 57

clinical improvement/resolution of symptoms which cant be attributed to one clinical reason or another; there is no obvious explanation.

Ex: a person who has suffered from depression for several months suddenly notices/reports significant decrease in symptoms despite no treatment interventions or logical explanation for improvement

Question 58

Successive approximations

Answer 58

used in shaping to control behavior; a behavioral term that refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response by reinforcing any responses that come close to the desired response

Question 59

Systematic desensitization

Answer 59

1st Generation Exposure Therapy: by Reciprocal Inhibition-Joseph Wolpe
Three components of systematic desensitization:
-Relaxation training; Relaxation is the reciprocal of anxiety and is thought to inhibit it in the pairing process
-Anxiety hierarchy; a list of 10-15 situations or items which causes anxiety for the client, rated from lowest to highest on the SUDS scale
-Paired presentation of relaxation and anxiety hierarchy

Paired presentation: Relaxation Induction

• Imagined presentation of items on the hierarchy in consulting room
• Graded in vivo exposure usually follows in order to generalize gains in consulting room to the natural environment

Question 60

Token economy

Answer 60

a system of behavior modification based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior; the reinforcers are symbols or “tokens” that can be exchanged for other reinforcers; conditioned or secondary reinforcers; acquire their value by association with primary reinforcers; can be simple or generalized