PSYC 500: Human Growth and Development Flashcards
Accomodation
Accommodation is a cognitive process described by Piaget, where an individual adjusts their existing schemas to incorporate new information that doesn’t fit with their current understanding. This process is essential for cognitive development as it allows individuals to adapt to new experiences and knowledge. For instance, when a child learns that not all four-legged animals are dogs, they adjust their schema for “animal” to include a broader range of possibilities.
For example, a therapist working with a 6 year old child who previously categorized all flying insects as “bees.” After being stung by a wasp, the child experiences anxiety around flying insects. The therapist helps the child accommodate this new information by differentiating between bees and wasps, reducing the child’s generalized fear.
Adverse childhood events
Adverse Childhood Events (ACEs) refer to potentially traumatic experiences during childhood, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, that have been linked to long-term negative effects on physical, emotional, and mental health. The more ACEs an individual experiences, the higher the risk for developing health issues like chronic disease, mental illness, and substance abuse in adulthood.
For example, a therapist working with a 35 year old client discovers the client experienced multiple ACEs, including parenting divorce and emotional neglect. The client presents with chronic anxiety and difficulty forming trusting relationships. By exploring the impact of these early events, the therapist helps the client develop coping strategies and work toward healing unresolved trauma.
Androgyny
Androgyny refers to the presence of both masculine and feminine characteristics within an individual, regardless of their biological sex. People who are androgynous may express traits traditionally associated with both genders, such as assertiveness and empathy, or may have a flexible approach to gender roles. Androgyny is often seen as allowing greater adaptability and psychological well-being, as individuals are not restricted by traditional gender expectations.
A therapist is working with a client who feels pressure from their family to conform to traditional gender roles but naturally exhibits both masculine and feminine traits. The client experiences stress and confusion about their identity. Through therapy, the client explores their androgynous identity, and the therapist helps them develop confidence in expressing themselves authentically, regardless of societal expectations.
Assimilation
Assimilation in the context of human growth and development refers to a cognitive process described by Piaget, where individuals incorporate new information into their existing schemas or mental frameworks without changing the schema itself. This process allows people to make sense of new experiences by fitting them into pre-existing categories or knowledge. It is particularly evident in early childhood development, as children interpret new experiences based on what they already understand. Assimilation works in tandem with accommodation to support cognitive development.
For example, a therapist working with a 5-year-old child who has recently started kindergarten may observe the child categorizing all animals with fur as “cats,” based on their prior experience with household pets. In therapy, the therapist might work with the child to broaden their understanding of animals by introducing new, similar creatures (e.g., rabbits or dogs) while acknowledging the child’s initial schema of “cats.” The therapist gently guides the child through assimilating this new information into their existing framework, gradually expanding their understanding of animals while still using their original category of furry animals.
Attachment
Attachment is the emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, which significantly influences the child’s development and relationships throughout life. This bond is crucial for a child’s sense of security and affects their ability to form stable, trusting relationships as they grow. Attachment styles - secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized - are shaped by early interactions with caregivers and impact emotional regulation and social interactions.
For example, a therapist is working with a client who struggles with trust and intimacy in relationships. Through therapy, it is revealed that the client had an avoidant attachment style with their mother, who was emotionally unavailable during their childhood. The therapist helps the client recognize how this early attachment experience impacts their current relationships and they work together to develop healthier attachment patterns.
Child abuse
Child abuse refers to any form of physical, emotional, sexual or psychological maltreatment or neglect of a child by a parent, caregiver, or another authority figure. It can lead to severe developmental, emotional, and psychological issues, including trauma, attachment disorders, and difficulties in social functioning. Children who experience abuse often face challenges in forming healthy relationships and may struggle with mental health issues later in life.
For example, a therapist is working with a 25 year old woman who experiences severe anxiety and depression. During sessions, the client reveals a history of physical abuse by her father. The therapist helps the client process her traumatic experiences, linking her current mental health struggles to the abuse she endured during childhood.
Continuity vs Non-continuity
Continuity vs. non-continuity refers to the debate in developmental psychology about whether development is a gradual, continuous process (continuity) or occurs in distinct stages with sudden changes (non-continuity). Continuity suggests that development is smooth and cumulative, while non-continuity posits that individuals move through different stages with qualitative changes in behavior and thinking.
For example, a therapist is helping parents understand their child’s developmental progress. The parents are concerned that their child suddenly became more independent. The therapist explains that this change reflects a non-continuous developmental stage, where the child has reached a new level of autonomy.
Critical period
A critical period is a specific time during development when an individual is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli, and the absence of such stimuli can result in permanent deficits. Critical periods are crucial for the development of particular skills or functions, such as language acquisition or attachment.
A therapist works with a child who was adopted at age 4 after being in an orphanage where emotional needs were not met. The therapist educates the adoptive parents about the missed critical period for secure attachment and works on building a strong attachment bond to mitigate developmental issues.
Developmental level
Developmental level refers to the stage at which an individual functions cognitively, emotionally, or socially, based on their age and experiences. This concept recognizes that individuals may reach developmental milestones at different rates and that a person’s developmental level may not always align with their chronological age.
A therapist working with a 12 year old client who exhibits behaviors typical of a much younger child. The therapist assesses the client’s developmental level, considering factors such as trauma and social environment, to tailor an intervention plan that meets the child’s current needs.
Egocentrism
Egocentrism refers to an individual’s inability to distinguish between their own perspective and that of others. This cognitive limitation is most commonly observed in early childhood, as proposed by Jean Piaget in his theory of cognitive development, particularly during the preoperational stage (ages 2–7). Egocentric children tend to believe that others experience the world exactly as they do, assuming that their thoughts, feelings, and perceptions are shared universally. This is not due to selfishness, but rather a developmental stage where they have not yet acquired the cognitive skills for perspective-taking. For example, a child might assume that if they like a particular toy, everyone else does too. This stage is a precursor to the development of empathy and the ability to understand differing viewpoints.
In therapy, working with an egocentric child involves strategies such as play therapy, where the therapist can create scenarios to challenge this limited worldview. For instance, through role-playing or storytelling, the therapist might encourage the child to think about how another person or character might feel in a situation, thereby gently fostering empathy and helping the child begin to understand perspectives outside of their own.
Genotype vs. Phenotype
Genotype and phenotype are important in clinical counseling because they offer insights into a client’s biological and environmental influences on mental health. Genotype refers to the individual’s genetic makeup, while phenotype represents observable traits or behaviors shaped by both genetics and environment.
Understanding a client’s genotype can help counselors identify genetic predispositions to mental health conditions like depression or anxiety, which are often inherited. While genotypes do not predict outcomes with certainty, they indicate possible risk factors that can guide the counselor’s approach. For instance, knowing that a client has a family history of mental illness can lead the counselor to focus on building coping skills to mitigate potential stressors.
The phenotype, however, shows how these genetic factors manifest in behavior and mental health, often shaped by a client’s environment. For example, two individuals with a genetic predisposition to anxiety may exhibit different symptoms based on their life experiences, with one showing pronounced anxiety and the other minimal signs. Observing a client’s phenotype—like their coping strategies and stress responses—enables the counselor to tailor interventions to the client’s lived experience.
In sum, understanding both genotype and phenotype allows counselors to create personalized treatment plans that consider both biological risk and the client’s unique expression of these traits in their environment.
A counselor working with Jane, who has a family history of depression (genotype) but strong coping skills (phenotype), focuses on reinforcing her resilience while monitoring for depressive symptoms. By balancing preventive strategies with her strengths, the counselor offers a tailored approach to support Jane through her current challenges.
Genotype-Environment Relationship
The genotype-environment relationship refers to how genetic predispositions interact with environmental factors to shape an individual’s development, including physical, behavioral, and psychological traits. Three primary types of genotype-environment interactions are:
Passive: Parents provide both genes and an environment that encourages the expression of those genes. For example, a child with athletic parents may inherit physical traits conducive to sports and grow up in an environment that supports physical activity.
Evocative: An individual’s genetic traits elicit responses from the environment. For instance, a naturally sociable child may receive more positive attention, reinforcing social behavior.
Active (niche-picking): Individuals seek environments that align with their genetic tendencies, such as a musically inclined child choosing music lessons.
In therapy, understanding the genotype-environment relationship can help address client concerns. For example, a therapist working with a teenager experiencing anxiety might explore how the client’s genetic predisposition to anxiety interacts with environmental stressors, such as a high-stress school environment. This understanding helps the therapist tailor interventions, like coping strategies, that address both genetic and environmental factors.
Habituation
Habituation is a basic form of learning in which an individual’s response to a repeated, non-threatening stimulus decreases over time. This adaptive mechanism allows individuals to conserve attention and energy by ignoring stimuli that are familiar and irrelevant, focusing instead on new or important aspects of their environment. Habituation occurs across many species and is fundamental to efficient functioning, as it helps prevent sensory overload by filtering out background stimuli.
In therapeutic settings, habituation techniques can be particularly useful. For example, when a child is easily distracted by common noises at school, a therapist might help the child habituate to these sounds through gradual exposure or mindfulness exercises. By encouraging the brain to recognize these noises as non-disruptive, the child learns to tune them out, enhancing their ability to focus on more important tasks, such as schoolwork. This process is important for managing attention and reducing anxiety caused by constant distractions.
Heterozygous vs Homozygous
Heterozygous refers to an individual possessing two different alleles for a particular gene, one inherited from each parent. Homozygous, on the other hand, means that both alleles for a gene are identical. These genetic variations play a crucial role in determining which traits are expressed. If the alleles are dominant, the trait associated with the dominant allele will be expressed, even if only one copy is present (heterozygous). If the alleles are recessive, the individual must be homozygous for the recessive trait to be expressed.
In genetic counseling, understanding the difference between heterozygous and homozygous can help explain the inheritance of certain traits or disorders. For example, a couple may be heterozygous carriers for a recessive genetic disorder, meaning they each carry one copy of the gene but do not exhibit the disorder themselves. However, if both parents are carriers, there is a 25% chance their child could inherit two copies of the recessive allele, making them homozygous and therefore affected by the disorder. This knowledge is critical for understanding genetic risks and inheritance patterns.
Identity achievement
Identity achievement refers to the successful resolution of an identity crisis, wherein an individual has explored various options and made firm commitments to specific values, beliefs, and life goals. This concept was initially introduced by Erik Erikson as part of his theory of psychosocial development and later expanded by James Marcia, who defined it as one of four identity statuses. Identity achievement represents a mature state of identity formation, where the individual has undergone a period of exploration (crisis) and emerged with a clear, confident sense of self. This status contrasts with other identity statuses such as identity diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium.
In therapeutic contexts, identity achievement is important for understanding personal development, especially during adolescence and early adulthood, when individuals often question their roles and future paths. For example, a therapist working with a college student who has struggled with career decisions may guide the student through exploring different majors and values. Once the student settles on a career in social work, they achieve a sense of clarity and confidence in their choice, representing identity achievement. This process is essential for forming a stable self-concept and directing future goals.
