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PSYC*2410 > PSYC*2410 Chapter 3: Anatomy of the Nervous System > Flashcards

PSYC*2410 Chapter 3: Anatomy of the Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two divisions of the vertebrate nervous system?

A
  • The central nervous system
  • The peripheral nervous system
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2
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The portion of the nervous system located within the skull and spine (brain and spinal cord)

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3
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

The potion of the nervous system located outside the skull and spine

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4
Q

Which division of the PNS interacts with the external environment?

A

The somatic nervous system

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5
Q

Which division of the PNS that regulates the body’s internal environment?

A

The autonomic nervous system

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6
Q

The efferent nerves of the autonomic nervous system are further divided into what two systems?

A
  • The sympathetic nervous system
  • The parasympathetic nervous system
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7
Q

Which division of the nervous system stimulates, organizes, and mobilizes energy resources in threatening situations?

A

The sympathetic division

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8
Q

Which division of the nervous system acts to conserve energy?

A

The parasympathetic division

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9
Q

What does the relative activity of the opposing sympathetic and parasympathetic input control?

A

Each autonomic target organ

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10
Q

What are afferent nerves?

A

Nerves that carry sensory signals to the CNS

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11
Q

What are efferent nerves?

A

Nerves that carry signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles (somatic NS) or internal organs (autonomic NS)

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12
Q

Which type of autonomic motor nerves project from the CNS in the lumbar and thoracic regions of the spinal cord?

A

Sympathetic nerves

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13
Q

Which type of autonomic motor nerves project from the brain to the sacral region of the spinal cord?

A

Parasympathetic nerves

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14
Q

When sympathetic neurons synapse on second-stage neurons, are they near or far from their target organs?

A

Far

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15
Q

When parasympathetic neurons synapse on second-stage neurons, are they near or far from their target organs?

A

Near

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16
Q

What are cranial nerves?

A

The nerves projecting from the brain

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17
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12 pairs (24 total)

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18
Q

What are the first two cranial nerves?

A
  • Olfactory nerves
  • Optic nerve
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19
Q

What are the longest cranial nerves?

A

The vagus nerves

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20
Q

Where do the vagus nerves travel?

A

To and from the gut

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21
Q

Are the autonomic motor fibres of cranial nerves sympathetic or parasympathetic?

A

Parasympathetic

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22
Q

What are the meninges?

A

The three protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord

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23
Q

From outermost to innermost, what are the three meninges?

A
  • The dura mater
  • The arachnoid membrane
  • The pia mater
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24
Q

What is the subarachnoid space?

A

The space beneath the arachnoid membrane

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25
Q

What is contained within the subarachnoid space?

A

Large blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid

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26
Q

Which of the three meninges adheres to the CNS?

A

The pia mater

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27
Q

What are the three interconnected structures filled with cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  • The subarachnoid space
  • The central canal
  • The cerebral ventricles
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28
Q

What is the main role of the cerebrospinal fluid?

A

To protect and cushion the brain

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29
Q

What is the small CSF-filled channel that runs the length of the spinal cord?

A

The central canal

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30
Q

What are the CSF-filled internal chambers of the brain?

A

The cerebral ventricles

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31
Q

What are the four cerebral ventricles?

A
  • Two lateral ventricles
  • The third ventricle
  • The fourth ventricle
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32
Q

What connects the third and fourth ventricle?

A

The cerebral aqueduct

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33
Q

What are the network of capillaries that protrude into the ventricles from the pia mater and produce CSF?

A

The choroid plexuses

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34
Q

What path does the CSF follow to be absorbed and drained?

A

Absorbed from the subarachnoid space into dural sinuses that run through the dura mater and drain into the jugular veins of the neck

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35
Q

What causes hydrocephalus?

A

A build up of fluid in the ventricles causes the walls of the ventricles, and thus the entire brain, to expand

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36
Q

What is the mechanism that impeded the passage of toxic substances from the blood into the brain?

A

The blood-brain barrier

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37
Q

What characteristic of the blood vessels in the brain creates an effective blood-brain barrier?

A

The blood vessel walls in the brain are composed of tightly packed cells that form a barrier to the passage of many molecules

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38
Q

T or F: The blood-brain barrier impedes the passage of all large molecules.

A

False, certain molecules can pass through

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39
Q

What are neurons?

A

Cells that are specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals

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40
Q

What composes the neuron cell membrane?

A

A lipid bilayer

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41
Q

What is embedded within the neuron cell membrane?

A

Various proteins

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42
Q

How are neurons classified?

A

Based on the number of processes extending from their cell bodies

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43
Q

What are most neurons classified as?

A

Multipolar

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44
Q

Which type of neuron has more than two processes extending from its cell body?

A

Multipolar neurons

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45
Q

Which type of neuron only has one process extending from its cell body?

A

Unipolar neurons

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46
Q

Which type of neuron has two processes extending from its cell body?

A

Bipolar neurons

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47
Q

What are interneurons?

A

Neurons with short axons or no axons at all

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48
Q

What are the two kinds of gross neural structures in the nervous system?

A
  • Those composed primarily of cell bodies
  • Those composed primarily of axons
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49
Q

What are clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS called?

A

Nuclei

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50
Q

What are ganglia?

A

Clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS

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51
Q

What are tracts?

A

Bundles of axons in the CNS

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52
Q

What are bundles of axons in the PNS called?

A

Nerves

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53
Q

What are glial cells/glia?

A

The non-neuronal cells of the nervous system

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54
Q

What is the ratio of glia to neurons in the brain?

A

2:3

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55
Q

What are four types of glia?

A
  • Oligodendrocytes
  • Schwann cells
  • Microglia
  • Astrocytes
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56
Q

What are oligodendrocytes?

A

Glial cells that myelinate axons of the CNS

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57
Q

T or F: Each oligodendrocyte provides only one segment of myelination?

A

False, each oligodendrocyte provides multiple segments, often on more than one axon

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58
Q

What are schwann cells?

A

Glial cells that compose the myelin sheaths of the PNS axons

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59
Q

What do schwann cells promote?

A

The regeneration of PNS axons

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60
Q

Each schwann cell constitutes how many myelin segments?

A

One

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61
Q

What are microglia?

A

Glial cells that respond to injury or disease by engulfing cellular debris and triggering inflammatory responses

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62
Q

What are three things microglia play a role in?

A
  • The regulation of cell death
  • Synapse formation
  • Synapse elimination
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63
Q

What are the largest and most studied glial cells?

A

Astrocytes

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64
Q

The extensions of which type of glial cell cover the outer surface of blood vessels that course through the brain?

A

Astrocytes

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65
Q

T or F: Some astrocytes make contact with neurons.

A

True

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66
Q

Which type of glial cell can exchange chemical signals, form functional networks, control the establishment and maintenance of synapses, control the blood-brain barrier, play a role in certain form of cognition, and more?

A

Astrocytes

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67
Q

What is the major problem in visualizing neurons?

A

They are so tightly packed and their axons and dendrites are so intertwined that looking through a microscope at unprepared neural tissue reveals very little

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68
Q

What is a golgi stain?

A

A neural stain that completely darkens a few neurons in a slice of tissue to reveal their silhouettes

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69
Q

What are golgi stains commonly used for?

A

To discover the overall shape of neurons

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70
Q

What is the main drawback to golgi stains?

A

They provide no indication of the number of neurons in an area

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71
Q

What is a nissl stain?

A

A neural stain that has an affinity for the structures in neuron cell bodies

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72
Q

Nissl dyes penetrate all cells on a slide, but they only bind to what?

A

They only bind to the most prevalent neuron in cell bodies (ex. DNA or RNA)

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73
Q

What is the most common dye used in the Nissl method?

A

Cresyl violet

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74
Q

When are Nissl types most commonly used?

A

To estimate the number of cell bodies in an area

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75
Q

What is the procedure for producing an electron microscopy?

A

Thin slices of neural tissue are coated with an electron-absorbing substance, then a beam of electrons is passed through the tissue onto a photographic film

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76
Q

What is one drawback of the electron microscopy?

A

The images are so detailed that it can be difficult to visualize general aspects of neuroanatomical structures

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77
Q

Are scanning electron microscopes capable of providing as much magnification as a conventional electron microscopy?

A

No

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78
Q

What are the two types of neuroanatomical tracing techniques?

A
  • Anterograde
  • Retrograde
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79
Q

Which type of neuroanatomical tracing methods are used when tracing the paths of axons projecting away from cell bodies?

A

Anterograde tracing methods

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80
Q

Which type of neuroanatomical tracing methods are used when tracing the paths of axons projecting away from cell bodies?

A

Retrograde tracing methods

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81
Q

Directions in the vertebrate nervous system are described in relation to what?

A

The orientation of the spinal cord

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82
Q

What are the three axes of the vertebrate nervous system?

A
  • Anterior-posterior
  • Dorsal-ventral
  • Medial-lateral
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83
Q

Which direction is referred to as anterior?

A

Toward the nose end of a vertebrate

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84
Q

What is another word for rostral?

A

Anterior

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85
Q

Which direction is referred to as posterior?

A

Toward the tail end/ back of the head of a vertebrate

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86
Q

What is another word for caudal?

A

Posterior

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87
Q

Which direction is referred to as dorsal?

A

Toward the back surface of a vertebrate or toward the top of the head

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88
Q

Which direction is referred to as ventral?

A

Toward the chest surface of a vertebrate or toward the bottom of the head

89
Q

Which direction is referred to as medial?

A

Toward the midline of the body of a vertebrate

90
Q

Which direction is referred to as lateral?

A

Away from the midline of the body of a vertebrate

91
Q

What does superior mean?

A

Toward the top of the primate heat or brain

92
Q

What does inferior mean?

A

Toward the bottom of the primate head or brain

93
Q

What are the three different planes of the brain?

A
  • Horizontal
  • Frontal
  • Sagittal
94
Q

What are horizontal brain sections?

A

Any slices of brain tissue cut in a plane parallel to the top of the brain

95
Q

What are frontal brain sections?

A

Any slices of brain tissue cut in a plane that is parallel to the face

96
Q

What is another word for coronal sections?

A

Frontal sections

97
Q

What are sagittal brain sections?

A

Any slices of brain tissue cut in a plane that is parallel to the side of the brain

98
Q

What is a midsagittal section?

A

A section cut down the centre of the brain, between the two hemispheres

99
Q

What is a cross-section?

A

A section cut at a right angle to any long, narrow structure of the CNS (ex. The spinal cord or a nerve)

100
Q

What are the two areas that comprise the spinal cord?

A
  • An inner H-shaped core of gray matter
  • A surrounding area of white matter
101
Q

What is gray matter?

A

Portions of the nervous system that are composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons

102
Q

What are the two dorsal arms of spinal gray matter?

A

The dorsal horns

103
Q

What are the two ventral arms of spinal gray matter?

A

The ventral horns

104
Q

What is white matter?

A

Portions of the nervous system composed largely of myelinated axons

105
Q

What are spinal nerves?

A

Pairs of spinal nerves attached to the spinal cord

106
Q

To how many levels of the spine are pairs of spinal nerves attached?

A

31 different levels

107
Q

Each spinal nerve divides as it nears the cord, and its axons are joined to the cord via one of which two roots?

A
  • The dorsal root
  • The ventral root
108
Q

Are all dorsal root axons sensory/afferent or motor/efferent?

A

Sensory/afferent

109
Q

What do the cell bodies of dorsal root nerves grouped together just outside the spinal cord form?

A

The dorsal root ganglia

110
Q

Are neurons of the dorsal root unipolar or multipolar?

111
Q

Are all ventral root axons sensory/afferent or motor/efferent?

A

Motor/efferent

112
Q

Are neurons of the ventral root unipolar or multipolar?

A

Multipolar

113
Q

Where do the cell bodies of ventral root neurons reside?

A

In the ventral horns

114
Q

Where do spinal nerves that are part of the somatic nervous system project?

A

To skeletal muscles

115
Q

Where do spinal nerves that are part of the autonomic nervous system project?

A

To ganglia

116
Q

What do the three swellings on the anterior end of the neural tube eventually develop into?

A

The adult forebrain. midbrain, and hindbrain

117
Q

Before birth, which of the initial three swellings does not grow into two different swellings?

A

The midbrain

118
Q

What are the five swellings that compose the developing brain at birth?

A
  • The telencephalon
  • The diencephalon
  • The mesencephalon (midbrain)
  • The metencephalon
  • The myelencephalon (medulla)
119
Q

Which of the five major divisions of the brain is the most posterior?

A

The myelencephalon

120
Q

What is the myelencephalon largely composed of?

A

Tracts carrying signals between the brain and the body

121
Q

In which of the five major divisions of the brain is the reticular formation?

A

The myelencephalon

122
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A

A complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei

123
Q

Which brain structure occupies the central core of the brain stem, from the posterior boundary of the myelencephalon to the anterior boundary of the midbrain?

A

The reticular formation

124
Q

The various nuclei of which brain area are involved in arousal, sleep, attention, movement, maintenance of muscle tone and various cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory reflexes?

A

The reticular formation

125
Q

What is the myelencephalon also referred to as?

A

The medulla

126
Q

Which of the five major divisions of the brain contains the pons and cerebellum?

A

The metencephalon

127
Q

What is the metencephalic structure that creates a bulge on the ventral surface of the brain stem?

128
Q

What is the large, convoluted metencephalic structure on the brain stem’s dorsal surface?

A

The cerebellum

129
Q

Which brain structure is thought to participate in the storage of memory of learned sensorimotor skills?

A

The cerebellum

130
Q

Damage to which brain structure eliminates the ability to precisely control movements and adapt them to changing conditions?

A

The cerebellum

131
Q

T or F: Cerebellar damage produces a variety of cognitive deficits.

132
Q

What are the two structures that compose the mesencephalon?

A
  • The tectum
  • The tegmentum
133
Q

What is the mesencephalon also referred to as?

A

The midbrain

134
Q

What is the tectum?

A

The dorsal surface of the midbrain/mesencephalon

135
Q

What are the two pairs of bumps that compose the mammalian tectum?

A
  • The inferior colliculi
  • The superior colliculi
136
Q

What is the posterior pair of colliculi in the tectum called?

A

The inferior colliculi

137
Q

Which pair of colliculi in the tectum have an auditory function?

A

The inferior colliculi

138
Q

What is the anterior pair of colliculi in the tectum called?

A

The superior colliculi

139
Q

Which pair of colliuli in the tectum receive major visual input and direct the body’s orientation toward or away from particular visual stimuli?

A

The superior colliculi

140
Q

What is the tegmentum?

A

The ventral division of the midbrain/mesencephalon

141
Q

What is contained within the tegmentum?

A

Parts of the reticular formation, tracts of passage, and three colourful structures

142
Q

What are the three colourful structures contained in the tegmentum?

A
  • The periaqueductal gray
  • The substantia nigra
  • The red nucleus
143
Q

What is the periaqueductal gray?

A

The gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct

144
Q

Which structure in the tegmentum plays a role in mediating the analgesic (pain-reducing) effects of opioid drugs?

A

The periaqueductal gray

145
Q

What is the cerebral aqueduct?

A

The narrow channel connecting the third and fourth ventricles

146
Q

Which structure in the tegmentum is a nucleus whose neurons project via the nigrostriatal pathway to the striatum of the basl ganglia?

A

The substantia nigra

147
Q

Which tegmentum structureis part of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system?

A

The substantia nigra

148
Q

The red nucleus of the tegmentum is a structure of which system?

A

The sensorimotor system

149
Q

What are the two structures that compose the diencephalon?

A
  • The thalamus
  • The hypothalamus
150
Q

What is the two-lobed diencephalic structure that constitutes the anterior end of the brain stem?

A

The thalamus

151
Q

Where do the lobes of the thalamus sit?

A

One lobe sits on either side of the third ventricle

152
Q

What is the massa intermedia?

A

The neural structure in the third ventricel that connects the two lobes of the thalamus

153
Q

What are sensory relay nuclei?

A

Nuclei of the thalamus whose main function is to relay sensory signals to the appropriate areas of the cortex

154
Q

What are the six-layered thalamic structures that receive input from the retinas and transmit their output to the primary visual cortex?

A

The lateral geniculate nuclei

155
Q

Which thalamic nuclei receive input from the inferior colliculi and project it to the primary auditory cortex?

A

The auditory thalamic nuclei

156
Q

Which thalamic nuclei are important relay stations in the somatosensory system?

A

The ventral posterior nuclei

157
Q

T or F: Sensory relay nuclei are one-way streets

158
Q

Which diencephalic structure is located just below the anterior portion of the thalamus?

A

The hypothalamus

159
Q

Which diencephalic structure plays an important role in the regulation of several motivated behaviours?

A

The hypothalamus

160
Q

How does the hypothalamus exert its effects?

A

By regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary glad

161
Q

What are the three structure that appear on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus?

A
  • The pituitary gland
  • The optic chiasm
  • The mammillary bodies
162
Q

What is the X-shaped structure on the inferior surface of the diencephalon?

A

The optic chiasm

163
Q

At what point do the optic nerves from each eye come together and decussate?

A

The optic chiasm

164
Q

What does it mean for a nerve to decussate?

A

To cross over to the other side of the brain

165
Q

Are decussating fibres said to be contralateral or ipsilateral?

A

Contralateral

166
Q

What is the largest, most superior/dorsal of the brain’s five major divisions?

A

The telencephalon

167
Q

Which of the five major brain divisions mediates the most complex functions?

A

The telencephalon

168
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

The convoluted layer of tissue that covers the cerebral hemispheres

169
Q

Is the cerebral cortex mainly composed of myelinated or unmyelinated neurons?

A

Unmyelinated

170
Q

What does it mean to be lissencephalic?

A

To have a cortex that is not convoluted

171
Q

What are fissures?

A

The large furrows in a convoluted cortex

172
Q

What is the longitudinal fissure?

A

The fissure that separates the two cerebral hemispheres

173
Q

What are sulci?

A

The small furrows in a convoluted cortex

174
Q

What are cerebral commissures?

A

Tracts that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres

175
Q

What is the largest cerebral commissure?

A

The corpus callosum

176
Q

What are the two major landmarks on the lateral surface of each hemisphere?

A
  • The central fissure
  • The lateral fissure
177
Q

Which fissure separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?

A

The central fissure

178
Q

Which fissure separates the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe?

A

The lateral fissure

179
Q

What are the four lobes of each hemisphere?

A
  • Frontal
  • Parietal
  • Temporal
  • Occipital
180
Q

What are the two distinct functional areas in each frontal lobe?

A
  • The precentral gyrus and adjacent frontal cortex
  • The frontal cortex, anterior to the motor cortex
181
Q

Which functional area of the frontal lobe has motor function?

A

the precentral gyrus and adjacent frontal cortex

182
Q

What role does the portion of the frontal cortex anterior to the motor cortex play?

A

Performs complex cognitive functions

183
Q

What are the two large functional areas in each parietal lobe?

A
  • The post central gyrus
  • Posterior parts of the parietal lobes
184
Q

What is the primary function of the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe?

A

Analyzing body sensations

185
Q

What is the primary function of the posterior regions of the parietal lobe?

A

Perceiving the location of objects and our bodies

186
Q

Which of the four brain lobes lies adjacent to the temples?

A

The temporal lobes

187
Q

Which of the four brain lobes contains the hippocampus and amygdala?

A

The temporal lobes

188
Q

What are the three general functional areas of the temporal cortex?

A
  • The superior temporal gyrus
  • The inferior temporal cortex
  • The medial portion of temporal cortex
189
Q

What is the superior temporal gyrus involved in?

A

Hearing and language

190
Q

What is the inferior temporal cortex involved in?

A

Identifying complex patterns

191
Q

Which of the four cerebral lobes is the most posterior?

A

The occipital lobe

192
Q

The primary function of which cerebral lobe is visual?

A

The occipital lobe

193
Q

T or F: The cerebral lobes are best thought of as functional units.

194
Q

What are gyri?

A

The cortical ridges located between fissures or sulci

195
Q

What is the largest gyri in the frontal lobes?

A

The precentral gyrus

196
Q

What is the primary function of the precentral gyrus?

197
Q

What is the largest gyri in the parietal lobes?

A

The postcentral gyrus

198
Q

What is the primary function of the postcentral gyrus?

A

Somatosensory

199
Q

What is the largest gyri in the temporal lobes?

A

The superior temporal gyrus

200
Q

The neocortex constitutes how much of the cerebral cortex?

200
Q

What two categories do most neocotrical neurons fall into?

A
  • Pyramidal cells
  • Stellate cells
201
Q

The six layers of neocortex differ from one another in terms of what three factors?

A
  • Size
  • Density
  • The relative proportion of pyramidal and stellate cell bodies they contain
202
Q

T or F: Many long axons and dendrites course vertically (at right angles to the corical layers) throught the neocortex.

203
Q

Which type of cortical neurons are multipolar and have a large dendrite that extends toward the cortex surface?

A

Pyramidal cells

204
Q

What are the star-shaped cortical interneurons called?

A

Stellate cells

205
Q

What is the functional organization of the neocortex in vertical columns called?

A

Columnar organization

206
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

A collection of interconnected nuclei and tracts that ring the thalamus

207
Q

What is the limbic system involved in?

A

The regulation of motivated behaviours

208
Q

What are the six major structures of the limbic system?

A
  • The amygdala
  • The hippocampus
  • The cingulate cortex
  • The fornix
  • The septum
  • The mammillary bodies
209
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

A collection of subcortical nuclei

210
Q

Which structure of the basal ganglia is the terminal of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway?

A

The striatum

211
Q

What two things make up the striatum?

A
  • Caudate
  • Putamen
212
Q

Which structure of the basal ganglia is located between the putamen and thalamus?

A

The globus pallidus

213
Q

Where does the stiatum’s major output go?

A

The globus pallidus

214
Q

What does the basal ganglia play a role in?

A

The performance of voluntary motor responses and decision-making

215
Q

Which disease is associated with the deterioration of the pathway from the substantia nigra of the midbrain to the stiatum of the basal ganglia?

A

Parkinson’s disease

216
Q

Which part of the basal ganglia is in the medial portion of the ventral striatum?

A

The nucleus accumbens

217
Q

What does the nucleus accumbens play a role in?

A

Plays a role in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs and other reinforcers

PSYC*2410 (4 decks)

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