PSY 205 Flashcards
What is developmental psychology?
Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the psychological growth and change that occurs throughout the human lifespan. This field examines how people develop physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally from infancy through old age.
Types of developmental changes
- PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: involves changes in body size, shape, and function over time.It includes growth spurts, motor skill development, and changes in physical health and abilities as one ages.
- COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: pertains to changes in thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and memory.It involves the development of language, intelligence, and the ability to process information.
- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: focuses on the emergence and regulation of emotions, including the ability to express and understand feelings.It involves developing self-concept, self-esteem, and emotional regulation skills.
- SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: examines how individuals interact with others and form relationships throughout their lives.It includes the development of social skills, empathy, and the ability to navigate social norms and expectations.
- MORAL DEVELOPMENT: This involves the evolution of moral reasoning and ethical behavior.It explores how individuals learn to distinguish right from wrong and develop a sense of justice.
Scope of developmental psychology
- INFANCY: Developmental psychology studies motor skills, language acquisition, and attachment formation during infancy.
- CHILDHOOD: In childhood, researchers explore cognitive abilities, social interactions, and the emergence of gender roles.
- ADOLESCENCE: The scope extends to understanding identity formation, peer influences, and the onset of emotional regulation challenges during adolescence.
- ADULTHOOD: In adulthood, developmental psychology looks at career development, family dynamics, and psychological well-being.
- AGING: This final stage involves the study of cognitive decline, life satisfaction, and coping with aging and loss.
Explain continuity Vs discontinuity
The continuity versus discontinuity debate in developmental psychology centers on whether development occurs gradually and smoothly (continuity) or in distinct stages (discontinuity).
CONTINUITY
Development is seen as a gradual, cumulative process where changes are incremental and can be measured over time. This perspective suggests that individuals develop through a series of small, gradual changes rather than abrupt shifts.
DISCONTINUITY
Development is characterized by distinct stages that are qualitatively different from one another. Each stage represents a new level of functioning or understanding, often involving significant changes in behavior or cognition.
Explain active Vs passive development
Active development suggests that individuals play a significant role in shaping their own development. People actively explore their environments, make choices, and engage with others in ways that influence their growth and learning. Passive development argues that individuals are shaped primarily by external influences, such as the environment, experiences, and social interactions.
Define growth
Growth refers to the quantitative and measurable physical changes that occur in a person such as increase in height, weight, and body mass.
Define development
Development refers to the systematic, progressive changes that occur in individuals over time, encompassing physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth.
4 differences between growth and development
- NATURE: Growth is physical, while development is more comprehensive, involving mental, emotional, and social aspects.
- MEASUREMENT: Growth is measured in units (height, weight), while development is assessed through the quality of changes in abilities and behaviours.
- DURATION: Growth typically stops after a certain age, but development continues throughout life.
- FOCUS: Growth is more biological, whereas development includes psychological and social elements.
Factors responsible for human growth and development
- GENETICS: Inherited traits from parents play a significant role in determining physical growth, abilities, and potential for development.
- NUTRITION: Adequate and balanced nutrition is essential for proper physical growth and brain development, especially in early childhood.
- ENVIRONMENT: A stimulating and supportive environment promotes cognitive, emotional, and social development. Factors include family, school, and community.
- HEALTH: Good health ensures that children grow properly, while chronic illness or poor health conditions can impair growth and development.
- HORMONES: Hormonal balance, particularly growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and sex hormones, regulate physical growth and the onset of puberty.
- EDUCATION: Access to education fosters intellectual development, enhancing cognitive abilities, problem-solving skills, and social interaction.
- CULTURAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS: Cultural values, norms, and social interactions influence personality development, emotional regulation, and social behaviors.
- PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: Regular physical activity promotes healthy growth, bone strength, and motor development.
What is heredity?
Heredity refers to the transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring. Genetic inheritance provides the blueprint for traits such as eye colour, height, and susceptibility to certain diseases
What are genes?
Genes are the basic units of heredity, made up of DNA. They carry the instructions for making proteins that influence how the body grows, functions, and looks.
What is prenatal development?
Prenatal development is the process of growth and development that occurs in a baby from conception until birth.
Stages of prenatal development
- Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2): Begins at conception, with the fertilized egg (zygote) dividing and implanting in the uterus.
- Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8): Cells differentiate into major organs and systems, forming the embryo’s basic structure.
- Fetal Stage (Week 9–Birth): The fetus grows in size and weight, with organs maturing to sustain life outside the womb.
Factors that influence prenatal development
- Genetic factors
- Teratogens
- Maternal health and nutrition
- Stress
- Environmental factors
- Maternal age
Stages of labour
- FIRST STAGE (DILATION AND EFFACEMENT): This stage begins with contractions and ends when the cervix is fully dilated to 10 cm. It is usually the longest stage and can last for several hours.
- SECOND STAGE (DELIVERY OF THE BABY): The mother pushes, and the baby moves through the birth canal. This stage ends with the birth of the baby.
- THIRD STAGE (DELIVERY OF THE PLACENTA): After the baby is born, the placenta (afterbirth) is expelled from the uterus. This stage is usually quick, lasting only a few minutes.
Types of birth
- Vaginal birth
- Cesarean section
- Home birth
Explain gene - environment interaction
Gene-environment interaction refers to the way genetic and environmental factors influence each other to shape an individual’s traits, behaviours, and health outcomes. It means that the effect of a person’s genes can be modified by their environment, and vice versa. For example, someone with a genetic risk for depression may develop the condition only if they experience trauma or chronic stress.
Explain epigenetics
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence itself. These changes can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and they can sometimes be passed down to future generations. For example, even though identical twins have the same DNA, their traits may differ over time due to epigenetic changes influenced by lifestyle and environment.
Explain Freud’s psychosexual theory
Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory of development suggests that personality develops through a series of stages in childhood, each focused on different erogenous zones. Freud believed that if conflicts in any stage are not resolved, they can lead to fixation, influencing personality in adulthood. He proposed five stages:
- Oral Stage (0-1 year) – Pleasure is centered around the mouth (sucking, biting, breastfeeding). The key conflict here is weaning of breast or bottle. Fixation can lead to habits like smoking, overeating or nail-biting.
- Anal Stage (1-3 years) – Focus is on bowel and bladder control. Fixation may result in traits like excessive cleanliness from too strict training (anal retentive) or messiness from too lenient training (anal expulsive).
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – The focus is on genitals or awareness of sexual identity. Children develop an attraction to the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus/Electra complex) and identify with the same-sex parent. Fixation can lead to issues with authority, gender identity, or relationships.
- Latency Stage (6-12 years) – Sexual impulses are repressed, and focus shifts to social and intellectual development. The key conflict is developing social and communication skills. There is no major fixation at this stage, but unresolved earlier conflicts may reappear later.
- Genital Stage (12+ years) – Sexual urges re-emerge, and individuals develop mature relationships. Key conflicts at this stage are developing romantic relationships, and finding a balance between love and work. If earlier conflicts were unresolved, issues in intimacy or identity may arise.
Explain Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development describes human development as a lifelong process that occurs in eight stages, each involving a psychological conflict that must be resolved to develop a healthy personality. These stages include;
- Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year): If caregivers provide consistent love and care, the infant develops trust and security. Neglect or inconsistent care leads to mistrust and anxiety about the world.
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years): Encouragement in simple tasks (e.g., dressing up) builds independence. Overcontrol or criticism leads to shame and self-doubt.
- Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years): Exploration and decision-making help develop initiative and leadership. Restriction or punishment results in guilt and hesitation to take action.
- Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years): School and social experiences build competence and confidence. Struggles in learning or socialization lead to inferiority and self-doubt.
- Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years): Exploring different roles and values leads to a strong sense of identity. Uncertainty about oneself causes role confusion and identity crisis.
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (18–40 years): Healthy relationships lead to intimacy and deep connections. Fear of commitment results in isolation and loneliness.
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years): Helping others, raising children, or meaningful work fosters generativity (a sense of purpose). Lack of contribution leads to stagnation and feeling unfulfilled.
- Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Looking back with satisfaction leads to integrity and wisdom. Regret and missed opportunities cause despair and fear of death.
Explain Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
The theory of cognitive development, proposed by Jean Piaget, explains how children develop their thinking abilities as they grow. Piaget identified four stages:
- Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years) – Infants learn through sensory experiences and movement. They develop object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when not seen). They also develop motor skills and goal - oriented actions.
- Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) – Children use language and think symbolically, but their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric. They exhibit egocentrism (difficulty seeing things from others’ viewpoints) and animism (belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities).
- Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) – Logical thinking develops, and children understand concepts like conservation (quantity remains the same despite changes in shape) and classification (ability to organise objects into categories based on common properties). They also have improved problem solving skills and the ability to perform mental operations.
- Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) – Abstract, logical and hypothetical thinking emerge, allowing problem-solving and scientific reasoning.
Explain the sociocultural theory of development
The socio-cultural theory of development, proposed by Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes the role of social interaction, culture, and language in cognitive development. It suggests that children learn through guided participation with more knowledgeable individuals, such as parents, teachers, and peers.
Key concepts include:
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. Learning occurs best within this zone.
- Scaffolding – Temporary support from adults or peers to help a child complete a task, which is gradually removed as they become more competent.
- Role of Language – Language is crucial for learning and thought development. Private speech (talking to oneself) helps children organize their thoughts and solve problems.
Explain Bowlby’s attachment theory
Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby, explains the profound emotional bond that forms between a child and their primary caregiver, and how this bond influences the child’s development. Bowlby suggested that these early attachment experiences are crucial for emotional security and serve as a foundation for future relationships. The theory underscores the importance of responsive caregiving in fostering a sense of safety, which allows children to explore their world and develop social and cognitive skills.
Ainsworth identified four attachment styles:
- Secure attachment – The child feels safe and trusts the caregiver.
- Avoidant attachment – The child is emotionally distant due to unresponsive caregiving.
- Ambivalent (anxious) attachment – The child is overly dependent due to inconsistent caregiving.
- Disorganized attachment – The child shows confused behavior, often linked to neglect or trauma.
These early attachment patterns influence later relationships and emotional well-being in adulthood.
Differences between Freud’s theory and Erikson’s theory
- Freud’s theory focuses on psychosexual stages, while Erikson’s theory focuses on psychosocial stages
- Freud’s theory states that development stops after adolescence, while Erikson’s theory states that development continues throughout life
- Freud’s theory places emphasis on sexual drives, while Erikson’s theory lays emphasis on social relationships
- In Freud’s theory, resolving fixations from early stages shapes personality, while resolving conflicts at each stage shapes identity in Erikson’s theory
- In Freud’s theory, childhood is the most important phase for personality development, while social interaction across the lifespan is key in Erikson’s theory
