PSY 203 Flashcards
What is I/O psychology?
I/O psychology is the scientific study of human behavior in workplaces and organizations. It applies psychological theories and principles to improve productivity, work-life quality, and overall organizational effectiveness.
Differentiate between Industrial psychology and Organisational psychology
Industrial Psychology focuses on the individual aspects of the workplace, including hiring processes, job analysis, employee training, performance appraisals, and developing fair compensation systems while Organizational Psychology concentrates on broader organizational issues such as leadership, motivation, employee satisfaction, team dynamics, organizational culture, and change management.
What is the difference between efficiency and effectiveness?
Efficiency is the ability to achieve an intended result with the least waste of time, effort, or resources, while effectiveness is the ability to achieve a better or desired result, delivering more value or meeting the objective more successfully.
What is personnel psychology?
Personnel psychology is a subfield of industrial and organizational psychology that focuses on the study and application of psychological principles to human resource management in organizations.
What is the job of I/O psychologists (in personnel psychology)
- Analyzing jobs/job analysis
- Recruiting applicants
- Selecting employees
- Determining salary levels
- Training employees
- Evaluating employee performance
What is the performance equation?
Performance equation is P = A × M × O
A is for ability i.e skills, knowledge, experience, education, disposition
M is for motivation or mindset
O is for opportunity
Define performance
Performance is the extent to which an individual, team, or organization meets or exceeds predetermined goals, standards, or objectives. It reflects how well tasks are completed and often considers both the quality and timeliness of outcomes.
Define productivity
Productivity measures how efficiently resources, such as time, effort, and materials, are converted into outputs or results. It often refers to the amount of output produced relative to the input, highlighting the effectiveness of work processes and the ability to maximize results with minimal waste.
Define motivation
Motivation is the set of internal and external factors that energize, direct, and sustain an individual’s efforts toward achieving specific goals. It drives behavior and influences the intensity, focus, and persistence of effort in work and other activities.
Symptoms of a sick organisation
- High labour turnover
- Low employee engagement
- Low productivity
- Poor performance
- Job dissatisfaction
- Low morale
- Absenteeism
Define ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing workspaces, tools, and tasks to fit the physical and cognitive capabilities of workers. It focuses on optimizing human well-being and overall system performance by adjusting the environment to prevent discomfort and injuries while enhancing efficiency and productivity.
Theories of motivation
- Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
- Vroom’s expectancy theory
- Locke’s goal setting theory
- McGregor’s X and Y theory
- John Stacey’s equity theory
- Herzberg’s two factor theory
- McClelland’s achievement motivation theory
- Self determination theory
- Skinner’s reinforcement theory
Define job analysis
Job analysis is the process of gathering, documenting, and analyzing information about a job’s duties, responsibilities, necessary skills, outcomes, and work environment. It serves as the foundation for various HR functions like recruitment, selection, training, and performance evaluation.
Benefits of ergonomics
- It reduces cost
- Improves productivity
- Improves quality
- Improves employee engagement
- It creates a better safety culture
- Boosts job satisfaction
Explain the relevance of an I/O psychologist in a typical organizational setting
An Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychologist plays a key role in improving workplace efficiency, employee well-being, and overall organizational effectiveness. They apply principles of psychology to areas such as recruitment, training, performance evaluation, employee motivation, and leadership development. By using evidence-based methods, they help organizations enhance productivity, create fair and effective work environments, and manage organizational change.
What is the ultimate goal of a profit making organisation
The ultimate goal of a profit-making organization is to maximize shareholder value by generating consistent profits while ensuring long-term sustainability. This is typically achieved through efficient operations, innovation, meeting customer needs, and effectively managing resources.
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
The Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943. It describes human motivation as a series of five levels, arranged in a pyramid, where lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can influence behaviour. The levels are:
- Physiological Needs – Basic survival needs like food, water, air, sleep, and shelter.
- Safety Needs – Protection from harm, financial stability, health security, and a safe environment.
- Love and Belonging Needs – Relationships, friendships, family, and social connections.
- Esteem Needs – Self-respect, recognition, status, and a sense of achievement.
- Self-Actualization – Personal growth, creativity, and realizing one’s full potential.
Maslow’s theory suggests that unmet lower level needs drive behaviour, and as they are fulfilled, individuals become motivated by higher level needs. For example, a hungry person focuses on food rather than social relationships or self improvement.
Explain the expectancy theory of motivation
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation, proposed by Victor Vroom in 1964, suggests that people are motivated to act in a certain way based on their expectations of the outcome. The theory is based on three key components:
- Expectancy – This is the belief that putting in more effort will lead to the desired performance level or better performance. (e.g., “If I study hard, I will pass the test.”)
- Instrumentality – The belief that good performance will result in a specific or desired reward. (e.g., “If I pass the test, I will get a high grade.”)
- Valence – The value an individual places on the reward. (e.g., “A high grade is important to me because it helps my career.”)
Vroom expressed motivation as; Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence. Motivation is strongest when all three components are high. If any component is low, motivation decreases.
For example; If a student believes studying hard (effort) will lead to passing exams (performance) and getting a good job (reward), they stay motivated.
If an employee believes working overtime will not lead to a salary increase, their motivation reduces.
Explain the goal setting theory of motivation
The Goal-Setting Theory, developed by Edwin Locke in the 1960s, states that specific and challenging goals lead to higher performance than vague or easy goals. The theory emphasizes that goals direct attention, energise effort, increase persistence, and encourage strategy development. The key principles include;
- Clarity – Goals should be specific and well defined. Clear, specific goals improve focus and effort. (e.g., “Score 90% in my test” vs. “Do well in my test.”)
- Challenge – Goals should be difficult but achievable to boost motivation.
- Commitment – Individuals are more motivated when they are committed to achieving the goal.
- Feedback – Regular feedback helps track progress and make adjustments.
- Task Complexity – Complex goals should be broken down into smaller, manageable steps to avoid frustration.
For example, an employee aiming for a promotion within a year will work harder and seek skill development.
Explain X and Y theory
The Theory X and Theory Y was developed by Douglas McGregor in 1960 as a way to understand different management styles and how they affect employee motivation. The theory describes two contrasting views of human motivation in the workplace:
- Theory X (Authoritarian management) – Assumes that people are naturally lazy, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and need strict supervision. They assume motivation is mainly based on money and job security. Managers using this approach rely on control, punishment, and rewards to ensure productivity.
- Theory Y (Participative management) – Assumes that people enjoy work, seek responsibility, and are self-motivated when given the right conditions. They assume people are motivated by achievement, recognition, and personal growth, not just money. Managers using this approach encourage autonomy, creativity, collaboration, and employee development to improve motivation and productivity.
McGregor argued that Theory Y leads to higher motivation and productivity compared to the rigid control of Theory X.
Explain the equity theory
The Equity Theory of motivation, developed by John Stacey Adams in 1963, suggests that individuals are motivated by fairness in social and workplace interactions. It states that people compare their input-output ratios (effort, skills, time vs. rewards, recognition, salary) to those of others.
If they perceive equity(fair treatment), they remain motivated.
If they perceive inequity (either being under-rewarded or over-rewarded), they may feel dissatisfied and adjust their behavior—by reducing effort, asking for more rewards, or even leaving the situation.
For example, if two employees with the same qualifications and experience have different salaries, the underpaid one may lose motivation or seek another job.
If a student works hard but gets lower marks than a less hardworking peer, they may feel discouraged.
This theory is widely used in workplace motivation and emphasizes the importance of fairness in maintaining employee satisfaction and productivity.
Explain the achievement motivation theory
The Achievement Motivation Theory, developed by David McClelland in the 1960s, suggests that people are driven by three main types of needs:
- Need for Achievement (nAch): People with a high need for achievement are goal-oriented, competitive, and strive for success. They take calculated risks, prefer challenging but achievable tasks, and seek personal responsibility for their success. For example, an entrepreneur working hard to expand their business and outperform competitors.
- Need for Power (nPow): Individuals with this need desire influence, control, and leadership. They enjoy making decisions and want to be in positions of authority. For example, a politician aiming for a leadership role to implement policies and gain social status.
- Need for Affiliation (nAff): These individuals prioritize relationships, teamwork, and social connections. They seek approval and belonging and avoid conflict. For example, an HR manager focusing on team bonding and a positive work environment.
Application
- In the workplace, managers can use this theory to assign roles based on employees’ dominant motivational needs.
- In education, understanding students’ achievement motivation can help improve learning strategies.
- In leadership, recognizing different motivation types can enhance team performance and engagement.
Explain the two factor theory
The Two-Factor Theory, also known as Herzeberg’s Motivation - Hygiene Theory, was developed by Frederick Herzberg in 1959. It explains that workplace motivation and job satisfaction are influenced by two separate sets of factors:
- Hygiene Factors (Extrinsic Factors or dissatisfiers) – These factors do not motivate employees but must be present to avoid dissatisfaction. If missing, employees feel frustrated. They include; Salary and benefits, Company policies, Job security, Working conditions, Supervision and relationships with colleagues. For example, an employee may not feel motivated by salary alone, but if salaries are delayed, dissatisfaction increases.
- Motivational Factors (Intrinsic Factors or Satisfiers) – These factors encourage employees to work harder and feel fulfilled. They are related to personal growth and achievement. These lead to job satisfaction and motivation when present. They include; Achievement, Recognition, Growth and advancement, Responsibility, Work itself. For example, An employee who is recognised as “Employee of the month” feels motivated to work even harder.
Improving hygiene factors alone does not increase motivation, but their absence causes dissatisfaction.
Improving hygiene factors alone does not increase motivation, but their absence causes dissatisfaction. Motivational factors drive employees to perform better and stay engaged.
This theory is widely used in employee motivation and workplace management.
Define job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is the level of contentment, fulfillment, and positive emotional state an employee feels about their job. It is influenced by factors such as salary, work environment, job security, recognition, career growth, and relationships with colleagues and supervisors.
Why is job satisfaction important?
- Leads to better customer service
- Improves workplace morale
- Enhances employee motivation
- Reduces employee turnover
- Increases productivity
- Encourages innovation and creativity
Explain upward and downward communication
Communication in an organization flows in different directions. Upward communication moves from lower levels of the hierarchy to higher levels, while downward communication moves from higher levels to lower levels.
- Upward Communication
This occurs when information flows from subordinates to superiors. Employees or lower-level staff communicate concerns, feedback, reports, or requests to their superiors.
Example in Caleb University:
A student reports a complaint to the Course Representative → The Course Rep informs the Head of Department (HOD) → The HOD reports to the Dean of Faculty → The Dean escalates the issue to the Vice-Chancellor (VC) if necessary.
- Downward Communication
This occurs when information flows from higher authorities to lower levels in the organization. Instructions, policies, decisions, or directives are communicated from top management down to employees or students.
Example in Caleb University:
The Vice-Chancellor issues a directive on new examination guidelines to the Registrar → The Registrar informs the College Deans → The Deans communicate with the HODs → The HODs pass the information to lecturers → Lecturers inform students.
Explain HSE
HSE (Health, Safety, and Environment) in the Workplace refers to policies, regulations, and practices aimed at ensuring a safe, healthy, and environmentally friendly work environment. It focuses on preventing workplace accidents, protecting employees’ health, and reducing environmental risks.
Common HSE practices
- Conducting regular risk assessments.
- Providing safety training and awareness programs.
- Enforcing the use of PPE.
- Implementing emergency response plans.
- Ensuring proper waste disposal and environmental conservation.
Organogram of Caleb University
Proprietor
│
Chancellor
│
Board of Trustees
│
Governing Council
│
Senate
│
Vice-Chancellor (VC)
│
┌──────────────────────┐
│ Deputy Vice-Chancellors │
└──────────────────────┘
│
┌────────────┬────────────┬────────────┐
│ Registrar │ Bursar │ Librarian │
└────────────┴────────────┴────────────┘
│
College Deans
│
Heads of Departments
│
Heads of Units
Areas of relevance in IO psychology
- Employee selection and recruitment
- Training and development
- Performance management
- Work motivation and job satisfaction
- Leadership and organisational development
- Workplace stress and employee well-being
- Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
- Workplace safety and ergonomics
- Organisational behaviour and change management
- Consumer and market research
What is transformational leadership?
Transformational leadership is a leadership style in which leaders inspire, motivate, and empower employees to achieve extraordinary outcomes while fostering personal and professional growth. It focuses on creating a vision, building trust, and encouraging innovation.
What is grapevine communication?
Grapevine communication is an informal and unofficial mode of communication within an organization, where information spreads through casual conversations, rumors, or gossip rather than official channels. It typically occurs among employees in social interactions, such as during lunch breaks, meetings, or online chats.
