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PS102 > PS102 - MIDTERM 2 > Flashcards

PS102 - MIDTERM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Encoding

A

Getting information into memory in the first place

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2
Q

Information-Processing Model

A

View of memory suggesting that information moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage, and retrieval
- Info must pass through three stages: Sensory, working, and long-term memory

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3
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Memory involving a detailed, brief sensory image or sound retained for brief period of time
- Holds everything we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell for a few seconds of less
- Allows us to decide if we should pay futher attention to the stimuli

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4
Q

Working Memory (Short-term)

A

A short-term memory store that can hold five to nine items at once
- Info will eventually drop out of working memory and disappear or will be futher passed on to our long-term memory

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5
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

The memory system in which we hold all th einfo we have previously gathered, available for retrival and use in a new situation or task
- System that can retain a seemingly unlimited number of pieces of info for an indefinate period of time

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6
Q

Parallel Distributed-Processing (PDP) Model

A

Theory of memory suggesting that information is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks

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7
Q

Automatic Processing

A

Encoding of information with little conscious awareness or effort

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8
Q

Effortful Processing

A

Encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort

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9
Q

Rehearsal

A

Continuous repitition of info in an attempt to make sure the info is encoded

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10
Q

Spaced Practice Effect

A

Facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spead out over time

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11
Q

Phonological Code

A

Encoding based on sound
- Trying to keep an address in mind to put into the GPS by repeating the sounds of the numbers again and again

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12
Q

Visual Code

A

Encoding based on vision
- Trying to keep and address in mind to put into the GPS by holding an image of how the digits would look if written down

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13
Q

Semantic Code

A

Cognitive representation of info or an event based on the meaning of the info
- This means we lin the new things we learn to the things we have already memorized based on shared meaning

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14
Q

Mnemonic Devices

A

Techniques used to enhance the meaningfulness of info as a way of making them more memorable

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15
Q

Schemas

A

Knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases
- Helps to encode in a hurry

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16
Q

PQRST Method

A

Step by step approach for studying that helps us learn strategically
- Preview, Question, Read, Self-Recitation, Test

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17
Q

Memory Span

A

Maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order

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18
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping bits of info together to enhance ability to hold that infor in working memory

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19
Q

Explicit Memeory

A

Memory that a person can consciously bring to mind, such as your middle name

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20
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Memory that a person is not consciously aware of, such as learned motor behaviours, skills, and habits

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21
Q

Semantic Memory

A

A person’s memory of general knowledge of the world

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22
Q

Episodic Memory

A

A person’s memory of personal events or episodes from one’s life

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23
Q

Retrival Cues

A

Words, sights, or other stimuli that remind us of the info we need to retrieve from our memory

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24
Q

Priming

A

Activiation of one piece of info, which in turn leads to activation of another piece and ultimately to the retrival of a specific memeory

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25
Q

Recognition Tasks

A

Memory tasks in which people are asked to identify whether or not they have seen a particular item before
- Multiple Choice

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26
Q

Recall Tasks

A

Memory tasks in which people are asked to produce info using no or few retrival cues

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27
Q

Context

A

The original location where you first learned a concept or idea, rich with retrieval cues that will make it more likely you will be able to recall that information later if you are in that same location or contex

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28
Q

Encoding Specificity Principle

A

A theoretical framework that asserts that memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding

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29
Q

State-Dependent Memory

A

Memory retrival facillitated by being in the same state of mind in which you encoded the memory in the first place

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30
Q

Flashbulb Memories

A

Detailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event

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31
Q

Decay Theory

A

Theory of forgetting, suggesting that memories dafe over time due to neglect or failure to access over long periods of time

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32
Q

Interference Theory

A

Theory that forgetting is influenced by what happens to people before or after they take info in

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33
Q

Proactive Theory

A

Competing info that is learned before the forgotten material, preventing its subsequent recall
- Old info blocks memory of new info
- Previous romantic partner’s name interferes with new romantic partner’s name

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34
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

Learning of new info that distrupts access to previously recalled info
- Names of new students interferes with names of pet fish

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35
Q

Repression

A

Process in which we unconsciously prevent some traumatic events from entering our awareness so that we do not have to experience the anxiety or blows to our self-concept that the memories would bring

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36
Q

Source Misattributions

A

Remembering info, but not the source it came from; can lead to remembering info from unreliable scources as true

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37
Q

Memory Consolidation

A

Process by which memories stablize in the brain

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38
Q

Potentiation

A

Synchronous networks of cells firing together

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39
Q

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A

A phenomenon where repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in the brain greatly increases the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulation

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40
Q

Prospective Memory

A

Ability to remember content in the future

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41
Q

Retrospective Memory

A

Ability to remember content from the past

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42
Q

Amnestic Disorders

A

Organic disorders in which memory loss is the primary symptom

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43
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Inability to remember things that occured before organic event

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44
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Ongoing inability to form new memories after an amnesia inducing event
- “Hi, I’m Tom….. Hi, I’m Tom”

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45
Q

Dementia

A

Severe memory problems combined with losses in at least one other cognitive function, such as abstract thinking or language
- Alziehmers is most common form

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46
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

Most common form of dementia, usually beginning with mild memory problems, lapses of attention, and problems in language, and progressing to difficulty with even simple tasks and recall of long-held memories

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47
Q

Phoneme

A

The smallest unit of sound in a language; an individual sound such as ba, da, or ta

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48
Q

Phonology

A

The study of how individual sounds or phenomes are used to produce language
- The word ‘tip’ has 3 phonemes; t, i, p

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49
Q

Morpheme

A

The smallest unit of a language that conveys meaning
- The word ‘pigs’ has 2 morphemes; pig and s. S = more than one , P alone doesn’t mean anything but ‘pig’ does

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50
Q

Semantics

A

The study of how meaning in language is construvted of individual words and sentences
- If we say that it is ‘raining cats and dogs,’ you do not expect to see animals falling from the sky, you know that this expression means it’s raining heavily

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51
Q

Lexical Meaning

A

Dictionary meaning of a word

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52
Q

Syntax

A

The system for using words (semantics) and word order to convey meaning (grammar)

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53
Q

Pragmatics

A

The practical aspects of langage usage, including speech pace, guesturing, and body language

54
Q

Telegraphic Speech

A

Speech that consists of minimalistic sentences; characterizes early toddlerhood and is the first evidence of sentence formation

55
Q

Critical Period

A

A window of time in development during which certain influences are necessary for appropriate formation of the brain

56
Q

Sensitive Period

A

A point in development during which the brain is more susceptible to influences

57
Q

Overregularization

A

The process by which elementary school children over-apply newly-learned grammatical rules to improperly “correct” an irregular part of speech, such as a verb (e.g., “goed” instead of “went”)

58
Q

Broca’s Area

A

A brain region located in the frontal lobe that is important for speech production

59
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A

A neurological condition arising from damage to Broca’s area where the patient is unable to produce coherent speech

60
Q

Agrammatism

A

A neurological condition arising from damage to a brain region just anterior to Broca’s area, where the patient is incapable of using words in grammatical sequence

61
Q

Wenicke’s Area

A

A brain region located in the temporal lobe that is important for language comprehension

62
Q

Wernicke’s Aphasia

A

A neruological condition associated with damamge to Wernicke’s area where a person cannot understand language

63
Q

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

A

Hypothesis suggesting that the vocabulary available for objects or concepts in a language influences how speakers of that language think about them

64
Q

Executive Funtion

A

The brains ability to control and manage the mental processing of information

65
Q

Dysexecutive Syndrome

A

Impairments in the ability to control an direct mental activities

66
Q

Algorithm

A

A problem-solving strategy that always leads to a solution

67
Q

Heuristic

A

A short-cut thinking strategy

68
Q

Mental set

A

Tendency to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past

69
Q

Funtional Fixedness

A

Tendency to view objects as having only one function

70
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Tendency to look for information

71
Q

Representative Heuristic

A

The assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category of which they are a member
- The movie you are going to see has several characteristics that seem to identify it as a romantic comedy

72
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Judging easily-recalled events as more common
- Vocabulary available for objects or concepts in a language influences how speakers of that language think about them

73
Q

Bounded Rationality

A

The fact that in many situations, our ability to make clear rational decisions is limited or “bounded” by things like lack on info, time constraints, or emotions attached to aspects of the problem we are trying to solve

74
Q

Metacognition

A

The ability to understand and control on’es mental activites

75
Q

Theory of Mind

A

Awareness of one’s own mental states and the mental states of others

76
Q

Obsessive-Compulsice Disorder (OCD)

A

A mental disorder associated with abnormal anxiety-provoking thoughts that can lead to ritualistic behaviours

77
Q

Schizophrenia

A

A mental disorder characterized by disorganized thoughts, lack of contact with reality, and sometimes auditory halucinations

78
Q

Factor Analysis

A

A statistical method for determining whether certain items on a test correlate highly, thus forming a unified set, or cluster, or items
- When people who do well on vocabulary items also tend to do well on other verbal items

79
Q

G Factor

A

A theoretical general factor of intelligence underlying all distinct clusters of mental ability; part of Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence

80
Q

S factor

A

A theoretical specific factor uniquely tied to a distinct mental ability or area of functioning; part of Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence

81
Q

Primary Mental Abilities

A

seven distinct mental abilities identified by Thurstone as the basic components of intelligence

82
Q

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

A

Theory that there is no single, unified intelligence, but instead several independent intelligences arising from different portions of the brain

83
Q

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A

Sternberg’s theory that intelligence is made up of three interacting components: internal, external, and experiential components

84
Q

Bioecological Model of Intelligence

A

Ceci’s theory that intelligence is a function of the interactions among innate potential abilities, environmental context, and internal motivation

85
Q

Psychometric Approach

A

An approach to defining intelligence that attempts to measure intelligence with carefully constructed psychological tests

86
Q

Reliability

A

The degree to which a test produces the same scores over time

87
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which a test accurately measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict

88
Q

Content Validity

A

The degree to which the content of a test accurately represents what the test is intended to measure
- U taking driving lessons and your intsructor tested you on your understanding of the rules of the road, the test would demonstrate high content validity

89
Q

Validity Coefficient

A

A correlation coefficient that measures validity by correlating a test score with some external criterion

90
Q

Predictive Validity

A

The extent to which scores on a particular test successfully predict future performance on a measure related to the test

91
Q

Standardization

A

The use of uniform procedures in administering and scoring a test

92
Q

Normal Distribution

A

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which most scores are in the middle, with smaller groups of equal size at either end

93
Q

Median

A

The score exactly in the middle of a distribution

94
Q

Mean

A

The average score in a distribution

95
Q

Mode

A

The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution

96
Q

Mental Age

A

The intellectual age at which a person is funtioning, as opposed to chronological age

97
Q

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A

Terman’s measure of intelligence; the ratio of a child’s mental age to her chronological age, multiplied by 100
- An 11 year old with average intelligence would earn and IQ of 100 (11/11 x 100), a more intelligent 11 year old would earn sn IQ of 118 (13/11 x 100)

98
Q

StereotypeVulnerability or Threat

A

A phenomenon in which people in a particular group perform poorly because they fear that their performance will conform to a negative stereotype associated with that group

99
Q

Flynn Effect

A

An observed rise in the average IQ scores throughout the world over time

100
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

An individual’s ability to perceive, express, assimilate, and regulate emotion

101
Q

Creativity

A

The ability to produce ideas that are both original and valuable

102
Q

Nerve Conduction Velocity (NCV)

A

The speed with which electrical impulses are transmitted along nerve fibers and across synapses

103
Q

Neural Efficiency Hypothesis

A

The hypothesis that bright individuals show lower brain activity than less bright individuals during tests of low to moderate cognitive difficulty

104
Q

Brain entropy

A

The number of neural states, or neural configurations, a brain can access during a task

105
Q

Down syndrome

A

An inherited disorder, usually caused by the presence of extra chromosomal material on the twenty-first chromosome, that results in intellectual disability

106
Q

Instincts

A

Inborn behavioral tendencies, activated by stimuli in our environments

107
Q

Homeostasis

A

A tendency of the body to maintain itself in a state of balance or equilibrium

108
Q

Yerkes-Dodson law

A

Law stating that ideal performance on a task occurs when the arousal level is optimized to the difficulty level of the task

109
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

Engaging in a behavior simply for the satisfaction that is part of doing it

110
Q

Incentives

A

External motives that indirectly indicate reward

111
Q

Extrinsic motivation

A

Engaging in a behavior due to the influence factors outside ourselves

112
Q

Anorexia nervosa

A

Eating disorder in which individuals under-eat and have a distorted body image of being overweight

113
Q

Bulimia nervosa

A

Eating disorder in which individuals binge and then engage in purging-type behaviour

114
Q

Binge eating disorder

A

Out-of-control eating of an unusually large amount of food in a single event, often multiple times per week, over several months or years

115
Q

Conscious motivations

A

Motivations that people are aware of and can verbalize

116
Q

Unconscious motivations

A

Motivations that people are unaware of and cannot verbalize

117
Q

Hedonic principle

A

The principle that we avoid painful experiences and approach pleasurable experiences

118
Q

Avoidance motivation

A

The desire to avoid the experience of a negative outcome following a behaviour

119
Q

Approach motivation

A

The desire to experience a positive outcome following a behaviour

120
Q

Loss aversion

A

A tendency to be motivated more strongly to avoid a loss rather than to achieve a gain, even if the potential loss and gain are of equal size

121
Q

Amotivation

A

The state of being without motivation

122
Q

Growth mindset

A

A belief that hard work and effort can improve a person’s skill or talent in a particular area

123
Q

Fixed mindset

A

A belief that talent is innate and that skill in a particular area is not determined by hard work and effort

124
Q

Affiliation

A

The need to form attachments to other people for support, guidance, and protection

125
Q

James-Lange theory of emotion

A

A theory proposing that felt emotions result from physiological changes, rather than being their cause

126
Q

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

A

A theory proposing that the subjective experience of emotion and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (that is, bodily arousal) occur

127
Q

Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion

A

A theory proposing that an emotional state is a function of both physiological arousal and cognition

128
Q

Cognitive-mediational theory of emotion

A

A theory proposing that cognitive interpretations, particularly appraisals, of events are the keys to experiences of emotion

129
Q

Facial-feedback theory of emotion

A

A theory proposing that subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by sensory feedback from facial muscular activity, or facial efference

130
Q

Facial efference

A

Sensory feedback from facial muscular activity

PS102 (3 decks)

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