progress test Flashcards
practice of unknown things for the progress test
what is the golgi made of
flattened tubules
what does cholestrol do to membrane fluidity
decreases, makes tails all in one direction
What is regulated exocytosis
when a cell is given a signal it releases hormones and neurotransmitters
Name the three types of endocytosis
phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking, non selective), and receptor mediated pinocytosis (specific solute binds to the receptors in vesicles to enter the cell)
Name the three stages of cellular respiration, where they occur and what are the outputs of each stage
- glycolysis occuring in the cytosol which produces 2ATP and electrons make NADH and 2 pyruvate.
- pyruvate oxidation stage and the citric acid cycle, occurring in the mitochondrial matrix produces acetyl COA (enters the citric acid cycle), output is ATP and NADH & FADH2
- Oxidative phosphorylation occuring in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, 2 stages the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. The output is ATP.
How is the proton gradient established for driving ATP synthesis
the energy from the electrons in the electron transport chain are used to pump protons against their concentration gradient into the intermembrane space. This powers the ATP sythase
equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)
Equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water) –light+plant—–> C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen)
Where are cell wall proteins (extensin) sythesised and added to the plant cell?
Cell wall proteins are synthesised from the rough ER where the vesicles fuse to the plasma membrane.
How does the cell wall function in regulating cell shape
influences cell morphology. provides structural support and prevents excessive water uptake
Charactaristics of the secondary cell wall
more cellulose, less pectin, lignin is present
What are the two types of nucleotide bases and how many rings do they have?
purines (2 rings) A& G, pyridimines (1 ring) T & C
What is occuring during prometaphase in mitosis?
the nuclear envelope has been fully disintegrated, the kinetochore is connected to the centromeres and there are non kinetechore microtubules are not connected to any centromeres
what occurs at anaphase 1 of meiosis?
the recombined (crossing over) homologous chromosomes seperate while the chromatids remain attached.
what is a chiasmata vs a centromere?
the point where crossing over takes place between 2 non homologous chromosomes. whereas a centromere is the primary point where 2 chromatids get attached.
What condition does XXY chromosomes have and what is their biological makeup
Klinefelter syndrome, biologically male. eg breast development, wide hips, poor beard growth
What condition would X0 chromosomes have?
Turner syndrome, biologically female. eg poor breast development, low hairline, characteristic facial features.
what are the gamete structure of a non disjunction when the homologous chromosomes split
N+1, N+1, N-1, N-1
why do most genetic diseases not show a mosaic effect in carrier females?
Because the gene products can move around the body
what is lejeune syndrome?
deletion of the short arm tip on chromosome 5
what are the three types of hexose monosachharides?
glucose, galactose, fructose
What are the three types of disaccharides and what are they made up of?
gluose+glucose=maltose
Glucose+fructose=sucrose
Glucose+galactose=lactose
what are the three types of polysachharodes and briefly describe each type
Starch- brancged with a long linear chain, it is a plant carbohydrate.
Glycogen- highly branched animal carbohydrate.
Cellulose- highly ordered stacked ontop of eachother, a plant carbohydrate
briefly describe the process of PCR and what is required for it to occur
Primer, DNA polyermerase and nucleotides
PCR is the process of making multiple DNA copies so there is enough DNA to work with. Starts at 98degrees, drops between 45-70 and finishes by increasing the temp to 72. This is repeating and can create an exponential growth of DNA. For this to occur primers providing the 3 OH group are needed, DNA polymerase to add. nucleotides, and dNTPs free nucleotides are required.
what are two regulatroy lipids derived from cholestrol
estrogen and testosterone
What occurs when an individual has familial down sydrome?
Pairing at meiosis goes wrong, therefore there are different kinds of eggs in the daughter cells The individual has the same number of chromosomes. Effectively have 3 chromosome 21’s. Has 2 standard copies of chromosome 21, a copy of chromosome 14 and then a chromosome thats made up of half of 14 and half of 21. The three bits of chromosome 21 is what gives the individual down syndrome. Familial down sydrome is the only type that has heritiability.
What is the result of a human inversion heterozygote?
They don’t line up properly when crossing over which means that they have a large deleted part, therefore one big chromosome and one small chromosome. Therefore likely to have reduced fertility
what structures seperate at the three different variations of anaphase.
Mitosis- sister chromatids (one of each homologous chromosome in each cell)
meoisis 1- the recombined homologous chromosomes seperate
meosis II- the sister chromatids seperate
what is the process of crossing over and when does it occur ?
during prophase of meosis 1 only , homologous chromosomes align and synapse, then crossing over between non sister chromatids occurs. This results in the chromatids now being a mix of pieces from each homologous chromosome
what occurs in anaphase in mitosis for the sister chromatids to be dragged apart?
kinetochores shorten and the non kinetochores lengthen causing the chromatids to be dragged apart
What does the nuclear pore complex allow out and in?
Out- mRNA and RNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In- signals
How does intercellular connections occur?
Structures called plasmodesmata allow for cell to cell communication and the free movement of small molecules
where are protons pumped during cellular respiration
from the Mitochondrial matrix, across the inner membrane into the intermembrane space
where are protons pumped during photosynthesis
from the stroma across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid space
where is atp produced in cellular respiration
In the matrix
what are plasmodesmata and what is their role?
They are cytoplasmic channels in plant cell walls that provide continuity between adjacent cells, therefore the free exchange of small molecules ( water, glucose, rna and proteins)
what does PCR stand for and how does it amplify DNA
The polymerase chain reaction and it amplifies DNA exponentially
why are triploid cells usually sterile?
problems in chromosomal pairing and therefore meoisis which causes aneploid gametes
How are DNA errors fixed during replication?
The DNA Pol III has its own proofreading mechanism. An incorrect nucleotide will be removed by the 3’-5’ exonuclease activity of the DNA pol III. Then DNA synthesis occurs as usual
How are DNA errors fixed after replication
If the bases arent corrected by the DNA pol III then the endonuclease will take out the incorrect base and some bases on either side of it. DNA polymerase then comes in to add the correct bases and the DNA ligase will join the new DNA to the existing DNA.
what are the three stages of the polymerase chain reaction and what occurs at them
- Denatauration, tempertaure 94-98
- Annealing, temp 45-70
- extension- temp 72
can be repeated up to 35 times
