progress test

Question 1

what is the golgi made of

Answer 1

flattened tubules

Question 1

what does cholestrol do to membrane fluidity

Answer 1

decreases, makes tails all in one direction

Question 2

What is regulated exocytosis

Answer 2

when a cell is given a signal it releases hormones and neurotransmitters

Question 3

Name the three types of endocytosis

Answer 3

phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking, non selective), and receptor mediated pinocytosis (specific solute binds to the receptors in vesicles to enter the cell)

Question 4

Name the three stages of cellular respiration, where they occur and what are the outputs of each stage

Answer 4

1. glycolysis occuring in the cytosol which produces 2ATP and electrons make NADH and 2 pyruvate.
2. pyruvate oxidation stage and the citric acid cycle, occurring in the mitochondrial matrix produces acetyl COA (enters the citric acid cycle), output is ATP and NADH & FADH2
3. Oxidative phosphorylation occuring in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, 2 stages the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. The output is ATP.

Question 5

How is the proton gradient established for driving ATP synthesis

Answer 5

the energy from the electrons in the electron transport chain are used to pump protons against their concentration gradient into the intermembrane space. This powers the ATP sythase

Question 6

equation for cellular respiration

Answer 6

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)

Question 7

Equation for photosynthesis

Answer 7

6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water) –light+plant—–> C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen)

Question 8

Where are cell wall proteins (extensin) sythesised and added to the plant cell?

Answer 8

Cell wall proteins are synthesised from the rough ER where the vesicles fuse to the plasma membrane.

Question 9

How does the cell wall function in regulating cell shape

Answer 9

influences cell morphology. provides structural support and prevents excessive water uptake

Question 10

Charactaristics of the secondary cell wall

Answer 10

more cellulose, less pectin, lignin is present

Question 11

What are the two types of nucleotide bases and how many rings do they have?

Answer 11

purines (2 rings) A& G, pyridimines (1 ring) T & C

Question 12

What is occuring during prometaphase in mitosis?

Answer 12

the nuclear envelope has been fully disintegrated, the kinetochore is connected to the centromeres and there are non kinetechore microtubules are not connected to any centromeres

Question 13

what occurs at anaphase 1 of meiosis?

Answer 13

the recombined (crossing over) homologous chromosomes seperate while the chromatids remain attached.

Question 14

what is a chiasmata vs a centromere?

Answer 14

the point where crossing over takes place between 2 non homologous chromosomes. whereas a centromere is the primary point where 2 chromatids get attached.

Question 15

What condition does XXY chromosomes have and what is their biological makeup

Answer 15

Klinefelter syndrome, biologically male. eg breast development, wide hips, poor beard growth

Question 16

What condition would X0 chromosomes have?

Answer 16

Turner syndrome, biologically female. eg poor breast development, low hairline, characteristic facial features.

Question 17

what are the gamete structure of a non disjunction when the homologous chromosomes split

Answer 17

N+1, N+1, N-1, N-1

Question 18

why do most genetic diseases not show a mosaic effect in carrier females?

Answer 18

Because the gene products can move around the body

Question 19

what is lejeune syndrome?

Answer 19

deletion of the short arm tip on chromosome 5

Question 20

what are the three types of hexose monosachharides?

Answer 20

glucose, galactose, fructose

Question 21

What are the three types of disaccharides and what are they made up of?

Answer 21

gluose+glucose=maltose
Glucose+fructose=sucrose
Glucose+galactose=lactose

Question 22

what are the three types of polysachharodes and briefly describe each type

Answer 22

Starch- brancged with a long linear chain, it is a plant carbohydrate.
Glycogen- highly branched animal carbohydrate.
Cellulose- highly ordered stacked ontop of eachother, a plant carbohydrate

Question 23

briefly describe the process of PCR and what is required for it to occur

Answer 23

Primer, DNA polyermerase and nucleotides
PCR is the process of making multiple DNA copies so there is enough DNA to work with. Starts at 98degrees, drops between 45-70 and finishes by increasing the temp to 72. This is repeating and can create an exponential growth of DNA. For this to occur primers providing the 3 OH group are needed, DNA polymerase to add. nucleotides, and dNTPs free nucleotides are required.

Question 24

what are two regulatroy lipids derived from cholestrol

Answer 24

estrogen and testosterone

Question 25

What occurs when an individual has familial down sydrome?

Answer 25

Pairing at meiosis goes wrong, therefore there are different kinds of eggs in the daughter cells The individual has the same number of chromosomes. Effectively have 3 chromosome 21’s. Has 2 standard copies of chromosome 21, a copy of chromosome 14 and then a chromosome thats made up of half of 14 and half of 21. The three bits of chromosome 21 is what gives the individual down syndrome. Familial down sydrome is the only type that has heritiability.

Question 26

What is the result of a human inversion heterozygote?

Answer 26

They don’t line up properly when crossing over which means that they have a large deleted part, therefore one big chromosome and one small chromosome. Therefore likely to have reduced fertility

Question 27

what structures seperate at the three different variations of anaphase.

Answer 27

Mitosis- sister chromatids (one of each homologous chromosome in each cell)
meoisis 1- the recombined homologous chromosomes seperate
meosis II- the sister chromatids seperate

Question 28

what is the process of crossing over and when does it occur ?

Answer 28

during prophase of meosis 1 only , homologous chromosomes align and synapse, then crossing over between non sister chromatids occurs. This results in the chromatids now being a mix of pieces from each homologous chromosome

Question 29

what occurs in anaphase in mitosis for the sister chromatids to be dragged apart?

Answer 29

kinetochores shorten and the non kinetochores lengthen causing the chromatids to be dragged apart

Question 30

What does the nuclear pore complex allow out and in?

Answer 30

Out- mRNA and RNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In- signals

Question 31

How does intercellular connections occur?

Answer 31

Structures called plasmodesmata allow for cell to cell communication and the free movement of small molecules

Question 32

where are protons pumped during cellular respiration

Answer 32

from the Mitochondrial matrix, across the inner membrane into the intermembrane space

Question 33

where are protons pumped during photosynthesis

Answer 33

from the stroma across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid space

Question 34

where is atp produced in cellular respiration

Answer 34

In the matrix

Question 35

what are plasmodesmata and what is their role?

Answer 35

They are cytoplasmic channels in plant cell walls that provide continuity between adjacent cells, therefore the free exchange of small molecules ( water, glucose, rna and proteins)

Question 36

what does PCR stand for and how does it amplify DNA

Answer 36

The polymerase chain reaction and it amplifies DNA exponentially

Question 37

why are triploid cells usually sterile?

Answer 37

problems in chromosomal pairing and therefore meoisis which causes aneploid gametes

Question 38

How are DNA errors fixed during replication?

Answer 38

The DNA Pol III has its own proofreading mechanism. An incorrect nucleotide will be removed by the 3’-5’ exonuclease activity of the DNA pol III. Then DNA synthesis occurs as usual

Question 39

How are DNA errors fixed after replication

Answer 39

If the bases arent corrected by the DNA pol III then the endonuclease will take out the incorrect base and some bases on either side of it. DNA polymerase then comes in to add the correct bases and the DNA ligase will join the new DNA to the existing DNA.

Question 40

what are the three stages of the polymerase chain reaction and what occurs at them

Answer 40

1. Denatauration, tempertaure 94-98
2. Annealing, temp 45-70
3. extension- temp 72
   can be repeated up to 35 times