Problem Solving Flashcards
What is a problem?
A problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present stage and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
Well-defined problems
Usually have a correct answer, and applying certain procedures leads to a solution eg math problems.
Ill-defined problems
Occur frequently, do not necessarily have one ‘correct’ answer.
Solution is often unclear.
Eg social problems.
Gestalt approach to solving problems
Representing the problem in our mind.
Solving a problem involves a reorganisation or restructuring of that representation.
Insight - solving a problem
Gestalt psychologists introduced the idea that restructuring is associated with insight - the sudden realisation of a problem’s solution.
Sudden understanding that assists in solving the problem.
Fixation
One of the major obstacles to problem solving.
Is people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution.
Functional fixed ness
Restricting the use of an object by only focusing on its usual uses
Eg candle problem and two strings problem.
Mental set
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determine by a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.
Sometimes useful and sometimes is an obstacle itself.
Obstacles to problem solving
Irrelevant or misleading information: when problem are complex it becomes easier for us to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
Information-processing approach to problem solving
Newell and Simon: problem solving involves a search.
Saw problems in terms of an initial state (conditions at the beginning of the problem), and a goal state (the solution of the problem).
Intermediate state involves an action towards the goal (steps to solving a problem).
Operators
Actions that take the problem from one state to another.
Rules which specify which moves are allowed and which are not.
Problem space
The initial state, goal state, and all possible intermediate states for a particular problem make up the problem space.
Means-end analysis
The primary goal is to reduce the differences between the initial and goal states.
This is achieved by creating subgoals - intermediate states that are closer to the goal.
Importance of how a problem is expressed
How a problem is stated can affect its difficulty.
Mutilated checkerboard problem (Russian marriage problem).
Think-aloud protocol
Participants vocalise their thoughts while problem solving.
Allows better understanding of subjects thought processes.
Analogically problem solving
Using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem
Eg using the Russian marriage problem to solve the mutilated checkerboard problem.
Analogically transfer
Transferring the experience of solving one problem to solving another.
Target problem - problem trying to solve
Source problem - another problem that share similarities with the target problem and illustrates a way to solve the target problem.
Surface feature
Specific elements of the problem (such as the rays and the tumour). Makes noticing difficult.
High surface similarities air analogically problem solving.
Structural features
The underlying principles that governs the solution.
Making structural features more obvious aids analogical problem solving.
3 steps to analogical problem solving
- Notice the analogous relationship
- Map the corresponding parts of the story onto the problem
- Apply a parallel solution to the problem.
Analogical encoding
The process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined.
Analogical paradox
While it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, people routinely use analogies in real-world settings.
In psychological experiments, people focus on surface features, but in the real world we use structural features.
In-vivo problem solving
Involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world settings.
Advantage: naturalistic settings
Disadvantage: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables.
How experts solve problems
They solve problems in their field faster and with greater success than beginners.
They possess more knowledge about their field and can access it when needed for the problem.
Novice looks at surface features, while an expert looks at deep structures.
Experts are no better than novices when given problems outside their field.
Creative problem solving
Innovative thinking
Novel ideas
New connections between existing ideas
Divergent thinking
Thinking that is open ended, involving a large number of potential ‘solutions’.
Convergent thinking
One correct answer
Group brainstorming
The purpose of this technique is to encourage people to freely express ideas that might be useful in solving a particular problem.
Just say whatever comes to mind.
Increase creativity by opening people to ‘think outside the box’.
Creative cognition
A technique to train people to think creatively.
Preinventive forms
Ideas that precede creation of finished creative product.
