Problem Solving

Question 1

What is a problem?

Answer 1

A problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present stage and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.

Question 2

Well-defined problems

Answer 2

Usually have a correct answer, and applying certain procedures leads to a solution eg math problems.

Question 3

Ill-defined problems

Answer 3

Occur frequently, do not necessarily have one ‘correct’ answer.
Solution is often unclear.
Eg social problems.

Question 4

Gestalt approach to solving problems

Answer 4

Representing the problem in our mind.

Solving a problem involves a reorganisation or restructuring of that representation.

Question 5

Insight - solving a problem

Answer 5

Gestalt psychologists introduced the idea that restructuring is associated with insight - the sudden realisation of a problem’s solution.
Sudden understanding that assists in solving the problem.

Question 6

Fixation

Answer 6

One of the major obstacles to problem solving.

Is people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution.

Question 7

Functional fixed ness

Answer 7

Restricting the use of an object by only focusing on its usual uses
Eg candle problem and two strings problem.

Question 8

Mental set

Answer 8

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determine by a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.
Sometimes useful and sometimes is an obstacle itself.

Question 9

Obstacles to problem solving

Answer 9

Irrelevant or misleading information: when problem are complex it becomes easier for us to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.

Question 10

Information-processing approach to problem solving

Answer 10

Newell and Simon: problem solving involves a search.
Saw problems in terms of an initial state (conditions at the beginning of the problem), and a goal state (the solution of the problem).
Intermediate state involves an action towards the goal (steps to solving a problem).

Question 11

Operators

Answer 11

Actions that take the problem from one state to another.

Rules which specify which moves are allowed and which are not.

Question 12

Problem space

Answer 12

The initial state, goal state, and all possible intermediate states for a particular problem make up the problem space.

Question 13

Means-end analysis

Answer 13

The primary goal is to reduce the differences between the initial and goal states.
This is achieved by creating subgoals - intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Question 14

Importance of how a problem is expressed

Answer 14

How a problem is stated can affect its difficulty.

Mutilated checkerboard problem (Russian marriage problem).

Question 15

Think-aloud protocol

Answer 15

Participants vocalise their thoughts while problem solving.

Allows better understanding of subjects thought processes.

Question 16

Analogically problem solving

Answer 16

Using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem
Eg using the Russian marriage problem to solve the mutilated checkerboard problem.

Question 17

Analogically transfer

Answer 17

Transferring the experience of solving one problem to solving another.
Target problem - problem trying to solve
Source problem - another problem that share similarities with the target problem and illustrates a way to solve the target problem.

Question 18

Surface feature

Answer 18

Specific elements of the problem (such as the rays and the tumour). Makes noticing difficult.
High surface similarities air analogically problem solving.

Question 19

Structural features

Answer 19

The underlying principles that governs the solution.

Making structural features more obvious aids analogical problem solving.

Question 20

3 steps to analogical problem solving

Answer 20

1. Notice the analogous relationship
2. Map the corresponding parts of the story onto the problem
3. Apply a parallel solution to the problem.

Question 21

Analogical encoding

Answer 21

The process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined.

Question 22

Analogical paradox

Answer 22

While it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, people routinely use analogies in real-world settings.
In psychological experiments, people focus on surface features, but in the real world we use structural features.

Question 23

In-vivo problem solving

Answer 23

Involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world settings.
Advantage: naturalistic settings
Disadvantage: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables.

Question 24

How experts solve problems

Answer 24

They solve problems in their field faster and with greater success than beginners.
They possess more knowledge about their field and can access it when needed for the problem.
Novice looks at surface features, while an expert looks at deep structures.
Experts are no better than novices when given problems outside their field.

Question 25

Creative problem solving

Answer 25

Innovative thinking
Novel ideas
New connections between existing ideas

Question 26

Divergent thinking

Answer 26

Thinking that is open ended, involving a large number of potential ‘solutions’.

Question 27

Convergent thinking

Answer 27

One correct answer

Question 28

Group brainstorming

Answer 28

The purpose of this technique is to encourage people to freely express ideas that might be useful in solving a particular problem.
Just say whatever comes to mind.
Increase creativity by opening people to ‘think outside the box’.

Question 29

Creative cognition

Answer 29

A technique to train people to think creatively.

Question 30

Preinventive forms

Answer 30

Ideas that precede creation of finished creative product.