Problem-Solving Flashcards
what is Problem-solving?
A problem occurs when there is an
obstacle between a present state and a goal, and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle (Lovett, 2002).
How to define a problem?
- Directing Thinking
- Undirected Thinking
Explain the difference between Direct and Undirect Thinking.
- Direct thinking:
-> is a goal-oriented and rational way of thinking (clear well-defined goal). - Undirect thinking:
-> is about daydreaming, and drifting thoughts (plays a role in creativity and poorly-defined problems)
What are the types of defined problems?
- Well-defined problem
- ill-defined problem
Explain the difference between a well-defined and an ill-defined Problem. Include examples.
- well-defined problem:
-> is characterized by clarity, specificity, and structure, facilitating effective problem-solving efforts and enabling problem solvers to work towards achieving a clear goal or objective.
Example: The Tower of Hanoi puzzle is a classic example of a well-defined problem, due to its clear objectives, known information, structure, and easy steps. (The problem can be broken down easily).
- ill-defined problem:
-> lacks clear parameters, known information, and specific criteria for success, making it ambiguous and challenging to approach in a straightforward manner.
Example: How to advance in your chosen career? What is the goal state? current state? intermediate goals? (open-ended question with no clear goal).
Explain Gestalt’s Representational change theory.
(Gestalt, 1912) approach was about how people represent a problem in their mind, and how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring
of this representation.
Critically evaluate Gestalt’s Representational change theory
Strengths:
1. explains the need to restructure a problem mental representation
2. applicable to various fields
3. is well supported by evidence
Weaknesses:
1. lacks an explanation of how representational change occurs in the brain
2. may not account for other influencing factors.
What are the Reconstruction methods suggested by Gestalt?
- Constraint relaxation
- Re-encoding
- Elaboration
Explain Constraint relaxation
refers to the process of loosening or modifying the constraints or rules governing a problem-solving task to explore alternative solutions and perspectives.
Explain Re-encoding
refers to the cognitive process of restructuring or reinterpreting information in memory to form new associations, often leading to enhanced understanding or recall.
Explain Elaboration
involves enhancing understanding or memory by deeply processing information through making connections, providing additional details, or relating it to existing knowledge.
Explain the difference between Productive and Reproductive Thinking. Include examples.
- Productive thinking :
involves generating new ideas, solutions, or insights through creative and divergent mental processes, often leading to innovative outcomes.
→ (Kohler, 1927) Problem-solving in monkeys. Where the chimpanzee had to retrieve a piece of fruit that was placed outside of its cage, beyond reach. And had two sticks to do so, but were too short. However, after some trial and error, It combined the two sticks into a longer stick, thus solving the problem and reaching the fruit. This behavior demonstrated that the chimpanzee was capable of understanding the problem, mentally representing the solution, and applying a novel solution strategy, rather than relying solely on trial-and-error methods.
- Reproductive thinking
involves recalling and reproducing information or solutions from memory without significant modification, often relying on established procedures or previously learned methods.
→ (Thorndike, 1898) Cat-in-the-box. They placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box with a mechanism that allowed the cat to escape and access food by pushing a lever. Initially, the cat would be scratching, biting, or meowing, in an attempt to escape. However, over time and through repeated trials, the cat would eventually discover the correct sequence of actions needed to open the door and access the food. Displaying gradual learning.
What were Past experience roles?
- Mental Set
- Functional fixedness
Explain Mental Set. Include examples
Mental Set, refers to the tendency to approach problem-solving tasks based on past experiences, habits, or learned strategies to interpret and solve new problems.
→ (Luchin, 1959) The water-jug experiment. In this problem, we are presented with a set of three jugs of varying capacities and a task to measure a specific quantity of water using the jugs. Participants had successfully solved the earlier problems using a particular method, however, the final problem could not be solved using the same method. Demonstrating the concept of mental set, once participants had established a specific problem-solving method, they were resistant to change.
→ (Thomas & Didierjean, 2016) Card deck experiment. In the experiment, participants were divided into two groups: experts and novices. Then presented with a deck of cards containing a mix of standard and unique designs. Their task was to sort the cards into two piles based on a specific rule, which changed throughout the experiment. The rule was either color-based or design-based. Each group employed a different strategy. Experts were able to adjust based on the changing requirements while the other group found it hard. Illustrating how mental set influence can be mitigated and adapt to change.
Explain Functional fixedness. include examples
Functional fixedness, occurs when individuals are unable to see alternative uses for objects beyond their typical or intended function. A bias arising from past experiences.
→ (Karl Dunker, 1945) The candle problem. In this experiment, participants are presented with a candle, a box of thumbtacks, and a book of matches. Their task is to attach the candle to a wall in a way that the candle can be lit without dripping wax onto the floor. Requiring participants to think creatively and overcome functional fixedness, to repurpose the box in a novel way by using it as a container.
→ (Maier’s, 1931) Two-cord problem. In this experiment, participants are presented with a set of materials including two cords hanging from the ceiling, a pair of pliers, and a weight. The cords are initially too far apart to be reached simultaneously, and pulling on one cord causes the other to rise, making it difficult to bring them together and the challenge is to find a way to tie the two cords together. The key insight is to use the weight to hold one of the cords in position, to be able to tie the other to it using the pliers. Demonstrating the role of insight.
