Learning

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

It is the process through which individuals acquire, retain, and apply new knowledge, behavior, skills, or attitudes (G.A. Kimble, 1961).

Question 2

What are the forms of learning?

Answer 2

1. Serial Processing
2. Parallel Processing
3. Habituation

Question 3

Explain Serial Processing.

Answer 3

Refers to where information is processed one piece at a time. And is used when reading or doing complex mathematical calculations.

Question 4

Critically evaluate Serial Processing.

Answer 4

Strength:
1. Useful mechanism for completing tasks that require focused attention.
2. helping understand how individuals process information.

Question 5

Explain Parallel Processing.

Answer 5

refers to the simultaneous execution of multiple cognitive operations or tasks. Different pieces of information are processed at the same time, allowing for more efficient utilization of cognitive resources. This is important for driving a car, where individuals must simultaneously monitor the road, observe traffic signs, check mirrors, operate the vehicle’s controls, and make decisions based on changing circumstances.

Question 6

Critically evaluate Parallel Processing.

Answer 6

Strength:
1. significantly increases the speed, capacity, and performance of information processing
2. allowes for more efficient utilization of resources.

Weakness:
1. can be complex and require careful design.

Question 7

Explain Habituation.

Answer 7

is characterized by a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure to it. It is considered a basic form of learning.

Question 8

Critically evaluate Habituation.

Answer 8

Strength:
1. Allows individuals to focus on more relevant information, by reducing attention to familiar and non-threatening stimuli.
2. Help organisms adapt to their environment by reducing responses to stimuli that are predictable.
3. Reduction of unnecessary responses.

Weakness:
1. Can sometimes lead to overgeneralization and result in diminished responsiveness to important stimuli that share characteristics with the habituated stimulus.
2. Can sometimes be accompanied by sensory adaptation, where sensory receptors become less responsive to the stimulus over time.
3. The decrease in response to a stimulus may not always be permanent.

Question 9

What is Behaviourism?

Answer 9

is a psychological perspective that focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental factors that influence them.

Question 10

What influenced the birth of behaviourism?

Answer 10

1. Structuralism, (Wilhelm Wundt, 1879) Aimed to analyze the basic elements of consciousness and the way they combine to form more complex mental experiences.
2. Functionalism, (William James, 1890) Emphasized the study of function and behavior. Functionalists sought to understand how the mind works and how it adapts to the environment to help individuals survive and thrive.

Question 11

What are the Behaviourist Approaches to Learning?

Answer 11

1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning

Question 12

Explain Classical Conditioning.

Answer 12

• Is a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits that response.

→ (Pavlov, 1902) dog experiment, where he presented a neutral stimulus (bell) just before the delivery of an unconditioned stimulus (food). A response such as salivation, originally evokedonly by the unconditioned stimulus, eventually appears when the initially neutral stimulus is presented. The response becomes conditioned. Classical conditioning seems easiest to establish for involuntary reactions mediated by theautonomic nervous system.

Question 13

Critically evaluate Classical Conditioning.

Answer 13

Strength:
1. explains many aspects of learning and behavior.
2. practical applications in various fields such as education and therapy.

Weakness:
1. it’s unable to account for all types of learning and behavior.
2. involves simple, reflexive responses and may not fully explain more complex human behaviors.

Question 14

Explain Operant Conditioning.

Answer 14

• is a learning theory that focuses on how behaviors are shaped and maintained through their consequences, and how we learn to repeat or avoid certain actions based on the outcomes we experience.

→ Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike, 1905), states that behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors resulting in unfavorable outcomes are less likely to recur. (basis)

→ Skinner’s box (B.F. Skinner, 1948), is a controlled environment used to study operant conditioning in animals. It consists of a chamber with a lever that an animal can press, and it allows researchers to manipulate and observe the consequences of the animal’s behavior.

Question 15

What are the principles of Operant conditioning?

Answer 15

1. Reinforcement (positive/negative)
2. Punishment (positive/negative)
3. Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 16

Explain Reinforcement (operant conditioning)

Answer 16

occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence that increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Positive reinforcement involves presenting a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus.

Question 17

Explain Punishment (operant conditioning)

Answer 17

occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Positive punishment involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus, while negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus.

Question 18

Explain Schedules of Reinforcement (Operant conditioning)

Answer 18

Different schedules of reinforcement, such as continuous reinforcement or partial reinforcement, can influence the rate and pattern of learning.

Question 19

Critically evaluate Operant Conditioning

Answer 19

Strength:
1. effective in explaining and modifying behavior
2. practical applications in various fields.

Weakness:
1. focuses on observable behavior and neglects cognitive processes
2. may not fully account for all types of learning and behavior, particularly those involving complex cognitive processes or social influences.

Question 20

Compare and Contrast between Classical & Operant Conditioning.

Answer 20

Type of association
1. Classical conditioning, associates two stimuli.
2. Operant conditioning, associates a behavior and its consequences.

Nature of behavior
1. Classical conditioning, the organism does not have control over the response, as it is elicited automatically by the presentation of stimuli.
2. Operant conditioning, the organism actively engages in behaviors that produce consequences.

Question 21

What are the other Forms of learning beyond behavioral change?

Answer 21

1. Latent Learning
2. Implicit Learning
3. Observational Learning

Question 22

Explain Latent Learning.

Answer 22

It is a concept in psychology that refers to learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or immediate motivation, it is learning that takes place but is not immediately expressed in behavior.

→ Maze navigation (Edward Tolman, 1930), Is a study where he placed rats in a maze with no food. Initially, the rats explored the maze aimlessly. However, after several trials, the rats appeared to form a cognitive map of the maze. When food rewards were introduced, the rats were able to navigate it much more efficiently. Showing that the rats had learned the layout of the maze through latent learning.

Question 23

Explain Implicit Learning.

Answer 23

It is a form of learning that occurs without conscious awareness of what has been learned or how learning has taken place. It often occurs gradually through repeated exposure to stimuli or patterns in the environment, and it may become evident through changes in behavior or performance over time.

→ It can be shown in the “Serial reaction time task” where participants are asked to respond as quickly as possible to a sequence of stimuli presented in a specific order. Even though participants may not be aware but their response times become faster and more accurate over time as they implicitly learn the sequence through repeated exposure.

Question 24

Explain Observational Learning.

Answer 24

It is a type of learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others and its consequences. Acquiring new skills and knowledge by watching and imitating the actions of others, rather than direct experience or explicit instruction.

→ It can occur in various contexts, through family, friends, school, social media, etc…

Question 25

What is knowledge?

Answer 25

It refers to the understanding of concepts, categories, and abstract principles that organize and structure our knowledge about the world.

Question 26

What is the Dictionary Approach?

Answer 26

It is a method used to analyze and process text, based on the contents of a dictionary.

Question 27

How is knowledge organized in the mind? (approaches to Categorization)

Answer 27

1. Prototype approach
2. Exemplar approach
3. Hierarchical organisation

Question 28

Explain the Prototype approach.

Answer 28

suggests that categories are represented by mental prototypes that embody the most typical and essential features of the category. When they categorize an item, they compare it to the prototype.

Question 29

Critically evaluate the Prototype approach.

Answer 29

Strength:
1. provides a simple and intuitive framework for understanding how people categorize and recognize objects in the world
2. accounts for graded category membership, where some items are considered more typical members of a category than others
3. practical applications in fields such as artificial intelligence, where it can be used to develop algorithms for pattern recognition and classification tasks.

Weakness:
1. assumes that categories are represented by a single prototype, whereas in reality, categories may be more complex and multidimensional
2. It does not account for people’s judgments being influenced by factors such as context, goals, and individual differences.

Question 30

Explain the Exemplar approach.

Answer 30

suggests that categories are represented by multiple exemplars or specific instances that have been encountered and stored in memory. Proposing that people categorize objects, events, or ideas by comparing them to multiple stored exemplars from their memory.

Question 31

Critically evaluate the Exemplar approach.

Answer 31

Strength:
1. provides a flexible and adaptive framework for categorization, allowing for variability and context-dependence in category judgments
2. accounts for the diversity and variability within categories by incorporating multiple exemplars with different features and characteristics.

Weakness:
1. may require extensive memory resources to store and retrieve multiple exemplars for each category.
2. may struggle to explain how people generalize from specific instances to abstract category representations. Without a central prototype to represent the category

Question 32

Explain the Hierarchical organisation.

Answer 32

refers to a structure or system that is arranged in a hierarchical or layered manner, with levels of organization nested within one another in a top-down fashion.

Question 33

Compare and Contrast the Prototype, Exemplar & Hierarchical Approaches.

Answer 33

Prototype Approach - Categories are represented by abstract prototypes that summarize common features shared by category members.

Exemplar Approach - Categories are represented by multiple specific exemplars or instances that have been encountered and stored in memory.

Hierarchical Approach - Categories are organized into hierarchical structures (top-down processing), where higher-level categories are more inclusive and lower-level categories are more specific.

Question 34

What is the Typicality Effect?

Answer 34

is a phenomena that refers to the tendency for people to process prototypical examples more efficiently and are perceived as more representative of their category compared to atypical examples.

Question 35

How are relationships between categories represented in the
mind?

Answer 35

1. Semantic network model
2. The connectionist model

Question 36

Explain The Semantic Network Model.

Answer 36

proposes that knowledge is organized in a network structure, where concepts are represented as nodes and relationships between concepts are represented as edges or links. Concepts are interconnected based on their semantic relatedness, with more closely related concepts being situated closer together in the network.

Question 37

Critically evaluate the Semantic network model.

Answer 37

Strength:
1. It provides a flexible and intuitive framework for representing and organizing knowledge
2. It account for various types of semantic relationships across different domains.

Weakness:
1. It may struggle to capture the dynamic and context-dependent.

Question 38

Explain The Connectionist Model.

Answer 38

A common application of the Connectionist Model is in pattern recognition tasks, such as handwriting recognition or speech recognition.

Question 39

Critically evaluate the Connectionist model.

Answer 39

Strength:
1. provides a biologically plausible framework for understanding cognitive processes.

Weakness:
1. can be computationally intensive and require large amounts of data for training, making them less practical for certain applications.