Problem of Kinship

Question 1

Definition of altruism

Answer 1

Refers to a behavior or an act that incurs a cost to self in order to provide benefit to another person

Question 2

What is the Hamilton rule

Answer 2

Altruism is favored by natural selection when:
rB > C

r: proportion of shared genes
B: Fitness benefits in terms of how many offspring are produced
C: Fitness cost to self

Question 3

Implication of the hamilton’s rule

Answer 3

1. Any traits that violate Hamilton’s rule will be ruthlessly culled
2. Nothing in inclusive fitness theory demands the existence of adaptation for kinship
3. The kinship mechanism will be favored by natural selection if the cost consistently enhances the reproductive odds of genetic relatives

Question 4

The universal aspect of kinship

Answer 4

1. Ego-centered kin terminology is universal
2. Kinship systems will make critical distinctions along the lines of sex
3. Generation is a critical point of distinction of kinship; the relationship between parents and children is often asymmetrical
4. Kin relationships will be universally arrayed on a dimension of closeness (genetic relatedness)
5. Degree of cooperation and solidarity between kin will be a function of their degree of genetic relatedness
6. Elder members of the kin will encourage the younger members to behave more altruistically
7. One’s position within an extended kin network will be a core component of the self-concept
8. Regarding linguistic differences, humans have a universal ability to identify actual kin
9. Kinship terms will be used to persuade and influence others, even when no actual kinship is involved

Question 5

3 hypotheses aiming to explain alarm calling in ground squirrels

Answer 5

1. Predator confusion hypothesis
   -> False as it does little to confuse the predator
2. Parental investment hypothesis
3. Inclusive fitness hypothesis
   -> Does not need to be direct offspring; if relatives are nearby, they will sound the alarm nonetheless

Question 6

How do we manage kin recognition

Answer 6

1. Odor
   -> Generally for newborns
2. Facial resemblance
   -> This one also works for identifying kin of strangers

Question 7

How do we manage kin classification

Answer 7

1. Genealogical distance
2. Social rank
3. Group membership, such as sex or maternal vs. paternal

Question 8

Predictions that can be made from kin selection theory

Answer 8

1. Genetic relatedness predicts emotional closeness between family members
2. Psychological grief experienced by family members correlates with genetic relatedness
3. Living close to genetic relatives enhances survival odds
4. Living without kin advantage is stressful
5. People will leave more estates to kin, especially close kin

Question 9

More on patterns of inheritance

Answer 9

• People will leave more offspring to siblings than parents due to offspring having more reproductive value
• Poorer families focus on daughters

Question 10

Who is most likely to provide the most care for grandchildren?

Answer 10

1. Maternal grandmother
2. Maternal grandfather
3. Paternal grandmother
4. Paternal grandfather

Question 11

why do maternal grandfathers invest more than paternal grandmothers?

Answer 11

Paternal grandmothers are likely to have a daughter with children, thus less need to invest in the grandchildren

Maternal grandfather’s best outlet is the daughter’s son, so he is more likely to channel more resources

Question 12

Why do grandmothers invest at all?

Answer 12

1. Grandmother hypothesis
2. Absent father hypothesis

Question 13

What is grandmother hypothesis?

Answer 13

Menopause serves an evolutionary function of ceasing reproduction to invest in children and grandchildren

Question 14

What is absent father hypothesis?

Answer 14

Men tend to die earlier than their mates; to mitigate such losses, it may have been beneficial for women to stop reproducing directly and invest in existing offspring

Question 15

Two main effects regarding aunts and uncles

Answer 15

1. Sex effect
   -> Aunts tend to invest more than uncles
2. Laterality effect
   -> Maternal aunts invest more than paternal aunts

Question 16

Difference between simple family & extended family

Answer 16

Simple family:
A single-parent or conjugal pair in which only one female reproduces

Extended family:
Groups in which two or more relatives of the same sex may reproduce

Question 17

Biparental vs. Matrilineal

Answer 17

Biparental family:
When the male is present in the family

Matrilineal family:
When the male is absent from the family

Question 18

Why are there so few families?

Answer 18

1. Remaining in the parental nest carries a tremendous cost regarding reproduction as the parents may suppress it
2. Competition for resources such as food is concentrated rather than dispersed

Thus families can only evolve if the benefits of staying with your family outweigh the cost

Question 19

Evolution of families via 2 models

Answer 19

1. Ecological constraints model
2. Familial benefit model

Question 20

What is the ecological constraints model?

Answer 20

Families emerge when there is a scarcity of reproductive vacancies; the high cost of delayed reproduction for staying with the family is minimized as early reproduction is not possible anyway due to lack of reproductive vacancies.

Question 21

What is the familial benefit model?

Answer 21

Families form because they provide immense benefits to offspring

1. Aid and protection from family members
2. Enhanced ability to compete subsequently
3. The possibility of inheriting or sharing the family territory or resources
4. Inclusive fitness benefits gained by being in a position to help and be helped by genetic relatives

Question 22

What are the 5 predictions in Emlen’s theory of the family?

Answer 22

1. Families will form when there is a shortage of reproductive vacancies but break up when the vacancies become available
2. Families that control many resources will be more stable & enduring than families that do not
3. Help with rearing the young will be more prevalent among families than comparable groups lacking kin relatives
4. When a breeder is lost, members will compete over who will fill the breeding vacancy
5. The loss of an existing breeder and replacement by a breeder who is genetically unrelated to family members will increase sexual aggression

Question 23

What are the 3 critiques mentioned in Davis & Daly’s critique of the theory of the family

Answer 23

1. Human families might remain together because of competition from other groups, as a kin-based coalition is advantageous in group-on-group competition
2. Humans engage in extensive social exchange based on reciprocal altruism with non-kin
3. Nonreproductive helpers such as post-menopausal women, have little incentive to encourage their offspring to disperse

Question 24

Types of family conflicts

Answer 24

1. Sibling conflict
   -> Siblings compete for access to parental and grandparental resources
2. Parent-offspring conflict
3. Parental conflict
   -> Parents conflict with how much parental investment each will give to the offspring within the family