problem areas Flashcards
Mental wellbeing
State of wellbeing in which an individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to make a contribution to his or her own community
mental health problem
a mental health concern that interferes with functioning but is mild and temporary
mental disorder
involves a combination of thoughts, feelings and behaviours which are associated with significant personal distress and impair ability to function effectively in daily life
SEWB framework
framework that includes all elements of being, and therefore wellbeing, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people
Domains:
- Connection to body and behaviours
- Connection to mind and emotions
- Connection to family and kinships
- Connection to community
- Connection to culture
- Connection to country
- Connection to spirit, spirituality and ancestors
Connection to body
connecting to the physical body and health in order to participate fully in all aspects of life
Connection to mind and emotions
the individuals personal experience of their mental wellbeing (or mental ill health) and their ability to manage thoughts and feelings
Connection to family and kinships
recognises that family and kinship systems have always been central to the functioning of traditional and contemporary Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander peoples lives
Connection to community
emphasises a connection to a communal space that can take many forms and provides opportunities for individuals and families to connect with each other
Connection to culture
refers to one’s secure sense of cultural identity and cultural values through connection to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage
Connection to Country
being on and caring for Country has positive physical and mental health outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people
Connection to spirituality and ancestors
recognises the sacred and inter-connective relationship between Country, human and non-human beings, as well as past, present and future. Includes knowledge and belief systems and the Dreaming.
Social determinants
education, employment, income and housing which contribute to an individuals health and wellbeing status
Political determinants
government policies such as legislation that has affected wellbeing by restricting the rights of self-determination and sovereignty
Historical determinants
the impact of past government policies and the oppression and cultural displacement experienced since colonisation
Cultural determinants
originate from and promote a strength based perspective, acknowledging that stronger connection to culture and Country build stronger individual and collective identities, a sense of self esteem and resilience. Includes cultural continuity and self-determination
Cultural continuity
involves intergenerational maintenance and transmission of cultural knowledge and practices, ensures maintenance of cultural connection
Self determination
the right to freely determine or control their political status and freely pursue their cultural, social and economic development
stress
psychobiological process, a state of mental, emotional and physiological tension in response to a stressor that challenges our ability to cope
anxiety
an emotion akin to worrying and uneasiness that something is wrong or something bad is going to happen
phobia
a persistent, intense, irrational fear of a specific object or event
phobia v fear
phobia is excessive, unreasonable and impairs daily functioning
GABA dysfunction
failure to produce, release or receive the correct amount of GABA needed to regulate neuronal transmission in the brain. Low levels of GABA = heightened stress response = more fight-flight-freeze
precipitation by cc
- Prior to conditioning the NS did not produce any response consistent with a phobia.
- The UCR was elicited by the UCS
- During conditioning, the NS was being paired with the UCS
- After conditioning, the NS became the CS
- The CS produced the CR of a phobia
- Thus classical conditioning precipitates a phobia, as without conditioning, the phobia would not occur
Perpetuation by operant conditioning
- When (person) encounters the phobic stimulus, it acts as the antecedent
- (Person) then displays the behaviour of avoiding the phobic stimuli
- This creates the consequence of feeling calm
- Thus operant conditioning perpetuates a phobia through negative reinforcement, increasing avoidant behaviours through removing a negative stimulus
benzodiazepines
drugs that increase GABA’s inhibitory activity, GABA agonist. Lower anxiety and reduce stress symptoms
breathing retraining
teaching correct breathing habits. Control of breathing is control of phobia. Inhaling slowly and deeply through the nose and exhaling slowly through the mouth
EEG, EMG, EOG
Electroencephalograph (EEG): A device that detect, amplifies and records general patterns of electrical activity of the BRAIN over time
Electromyograph (EMG): A device that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of muscles
Electro-oculargraph (EOG): A device that measures eye movements or eye positions by detecting, amplifying and recording electrical activity in eyes muscles that control eye movements
NREM 1
- Relatively light sleep
- Physiological responses begin to slow down (brain activity, heart rate, temperature)
- Amounts to 4 or 5% of total sleep time
- People are easily awakened
NREM 2
- Light sleep, sometimes described as moderate sleep because it gradually gets deeper
- Continued slowing of heart rate, breathing, muscle activity and body movements
- Body temperature continues to fall and eye movements stop
- N2 has higher arousal threshold than N1
NREM 3
- Deep sleep
- Heart rate and breathing slow to their lowest levels, muscles are completely relaxed and we barely move
- Largest and slowest brain waves (delta waves are prominent)
- Highest arousal threshold
- A person may spend 20-40min in N3 (age dependent)
- Makes up 10-15% of total sleep time
REM
defined by spontaneous bursts of rapid eye movement
- 20-25% of total sleep time
- Also called paradoxical sleep - internally brain and body are active while external the body appears calm and inactive
dreaming
most dreaming occurs during REM sleep
- Dreams that occur in NREM sleep stages are generally shorter, less frequent, less structured, less likely to be recalled and less vivid than REM dreams
- REM dreams typically have a narrative structure and consist of storylines that range from realistic to complete fantasy
circadian rhythm
Biological processes in all animals that coordinate the timing of activity of body systems over a 24hr period (sleep wake cycle)
ultradian rhythm
biological process that coordinate the timing of activity of body systems over periods of less than 24 hours (heart rate, pulse, appetite)
suprachiasmatic nucleus
Master body clock in the hypothalamus that regulates body activities to a daily schedule of sleep and wakefulness
zeitgebers
External environmental cues such as light, temperature and eating patterns that can synchronise and regulate the body’s circadian rhythm
melatonin
Hormone that is involved in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle (induces drowsiness and decreases cell activity)
trends across the lifespan
- Total amount of sleep decreases
- Proportion of REM sleep decreases significantly from birth until 2 yrs old
- Amount of N3 sleep decreases, replaced mostly by N2 sleep
- Circadian phase delay occurs during adolescence (preference for going to sleep later)
- After adolescence a shift to a circadian phase advance occurs (preference for going to sleep earlier)
- Awakenings during sleep increase from adulthood to old age
- Sleep efficiency (percentage of time in bed spent asleep) reduces
newborns and infants
- No established circadian rhythm,
- In the first 2 weeks of life, 50% of infants sleep is REM sleep
- By 12 months, 14-15 hrs total sleep time, mostly occurring in a single episode at night
children
- Total sleep time continues decreasing as the child gets older, from about 13 to 11hrs between 2 to 4 yrs of age
- Proportion of REM sleep continues to decrease (20%) and the amount of NREM sleep increase, with a greater percentage of sleep time spent in stages 2 and 3
adolescents
- Total time spent sleep decreases as does REM sleep (20%)
- By mid adolescence, sleep episode resembles that of young adults
- Adolescents tend to get less sleep then they need to function at their best (partly due to sleep-wake cycle shift)
adults
- Average of 8hrs of sleep per night, 20-25% REM
- Overall pattern of sleep shows a progressive decline in duration of a typical sleep episode and in the proportions of time spent in REM and NREM
- Gradual loss of NREM stage 3 sleep
- As the individual ages (between 20-60), deep sleep declines at a rate of about 2% per decade. By age 60 or so, a severe reduction is evident
older adults
- Less NREM3 sleep
- Eventually stage 3 disappears altogether
- REM (18-20%)
- Sleep becomes fragmented with more night time awakenings (due to less N3 sleep)
- 7-8hrs sleep each day
- Some have 30min naps
- Sleepier in early evening, wake earlier in the morning
partial sleep deprivation
involves having less sleep (either quantity or quality) than what is normally required
total sleep deprivation
involves not having any sleep at all over a short term or long term period
sleep deprivation: affective functioning
Emotions and mood
- Trouble regulating or controlling your emotions
- Amplified emotional responses/unwarranted emotional outbursts
- Mood swings
- Be more irritable or cry for no apparent reason
sleep deprivation: behavioural functioning
Refers to a persons observable actions
- Sleep inter: temporary period of reduced alertness and performance impairment that occurs immediately after awakening
- Excessive sleepiness
- Fatigue
- Slower reaction time
- Increase in risk taking behaviour
sleep deprivation: cognitive functioning
Refers to a persons mental processing
- Trouble with memory
- Decreased alertness
- Poor concentration
- Impaired problem solving, decision making
- Poor judgement
- Lack of motivation
circadian rhythm sleep disorders
A category of sleep disorders characterised by a persistent pattern of sleep disruption due to a misalignment between the circadian rhythm and sleep-wake schedule required by a person
DSPS
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by a delay in the timing of sleep onset and awakening, compared with timing that is desired of conventionally accepted
ASPD
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by an advance in the timing of sleep onset and awakening, compared with timing that is desired of conventionally accepted
SWD
A circadian rhythm sleep disorder that occurs as a result of work shifts being regularly scheduled during the usual sleep period
treating circadian rhythm sleep disorders
Bright light therapy, also called phototherapy, involves timed exposure of the eyes to intense but safe amounts of light, When used for circadian rhythm sleep disorders, the aim is to shift an individual’s sleep-wake cycle to a desired schedule, typically the day-night cycle of their physical environment
BLT and DSPS
Light exposure generally takes place during early morning hours (e.g between 6-8am) to help advance the circadian rhythm to an earlier time
BLT and ASPD
Light exposure takes place early at night/in the evening to help delay the circadian rhythm to a later time (I.e shift the phase backward) so that the person will be sleepier later and wake up later
sleep hygiene
Practices that tend to improve and maintain good sleep and full daytime alertness
Good sleep hygiene practices:
- Establish a regular relaxing sleep schedule and bedtime routine
- Associate your bed and bedroom with sleep
- Avoid stimulating activities an hour before bed
- Avoid napping during normal waking period
- Avoid stimulants such as caffeine, nicotine and alcohol too close to bedtime
- Exercise during the day to promote good sleep
- Don’t eat right before bed
exposure to daylight
Exposure to daylight during morning hours and early afternoon advances the sleep-wake cycle, pushing it forward to a slightly earlier time. Light exposure in the late afternoon and early evening has the opposite effect, delaying sleep-wake cycle and pushing it back to a later time.
temperature
Air temperature can be sued as a zeitgeber to signal and help the body get ready for sleep but probably with a weaker strength than light.
- Sleep is most likely to occur when core body temp decreases
eating and drinking patterns
For most people who routinely consume food during the active, daylight phase of the 24hr cycle, the suprachiasmatic nucleus and peripheral clocks remain synchronised, allowing for a consistent and appropriate sleep-wake cycle
adjusting eating and drinking patterns
Bringing meal times back to a normal schedule during the active, light phase of the day, as well as leaving a sufficiently long fasting window during the circadian inactive phase of the night, will allow the peripheral clocks to resynchronise with the suprachiasmatic nucleus
memory
The processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning;
3 fundamental processes:
- Encoding: converting info into usable form
- Storage: retaining info for a period of time
- Retrieval: accessing info from storage
attkinson shiffrin mode
Represents memory as consisting of three separate stores (components); sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory
sensory memory
- Function: entry point of memory where info is stored for a very brief period
- Duration: momentary, up to 10 sec
- Capacity: vast, potentially unlimited
If info is attended to -> transferred to STM
If info is not attended to -> lost forever
STM
- Function: info received into sim is processed (encoded) and stored for a brief period, unless a conscious effort is made to keep it there longer
- Duration: 18-20sec
- Capacity: 7+/-2 (5-9 items at once)
A conscious effort = maintenance rehearsal
Info stored in STM is not an exact replica of the sensory stimulus, but an encoded version
Displacement in STM
When STM is full, new items can only enter through displacement (pushing one item out)
STM as working memory
- Emphasises the active processing and use of information that occurs there
- Enables us to actively ‘work on’ and manipulate information while we undertake our everyday tasks
- Info from sensory memory is processed in working memory and info is retrieved from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory
- Once required task has been completed, info stored is no longer required and is either transferred to LTM or discarded
LTM
- Function: storage of memory for a long period of time
- duration: potentially unlimited
- Capacity: potentially unlimited
Implicit - procedural
The memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously (how to do something/behaviours)
e.g how to drive, how to brush your teeth, how to write
Implicit - cc
Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning
e.g if you immediately experience fear or anxiety at the sight of a spider because of past associations with anxiety, fear or pain, implicit memory is involved
hippocampus
Involved in formation of long term explicit memories and their transfer to the cerebral cortex for storage
amygdala
encodes implicit memories to do with emotions and then activates the hippocampus to encode the explicit event as significant
neocortex
Stores explicit memories for a long time
- Memories are permanently stored in areas where sensory input was first processed but linked by neural networks so when required, separate parts are brought together, reconstructed and retrieved into consciousness as a single, integrated memory
basal ganglia
Encoding of implicit procedural memory, specifically habits
- Forms habits by associating movement with reward or reinforcement by communicating with other regions of the brain to acquire motor and cognitive skills gradually through practice
cerebellum
Involved in the encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories and motor skill memories
- Key storage site for implicit classically conditioned simple reflexes, and helps contribute to navigation and spatial learning
Alzheimer’s disease
Type of dementia characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neuron’s, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills and personality changes
symptoms of alzheimers
- Cortical areas tend to be damaged first, disrupts STM
- As the disease progresses to deeper parts of the brain such as hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe areas, LTM is increasingly impaired
- Explicit episodic and semantic memories are primarily affected
- Post-mortem studies typically show extensive brain shrinkage and damage
alzheimers disease brain changes
- Amyloid plaques: occur when beta-amyloid proteins build up. This abnormal buildup forms plaques between synapses of neurone and so interferes with neural communication
- Neurofibrillary tangles: occur when protein builds up inside the neuron and are associated with cell death. This interferes with the flow of information within and between neuron’s, disrupting communication
- Acetylcholine: There is a lack of the important memory neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Alzheimers disease systematically destroys the neurons that produce acetylcholine
- Brain atrophy occurs. Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles progressively damage neurons, which die causing brain tissue to shrink
alzheimers and imagined futures
- The hippocampus is one of the first structures affected; up to three-quarters of the neurons die and the rest are damaged
- This means new explicit memories cannot be encoded and consolidated, resulting in anterograde amnesia
- The loss of neurons then spread to the cerebral cortex, resulting in loss of stored explicit long term memories (retrograde amnesia) as well as problems with attention and changes to personality and emotions
- When autobiographical memories are lost, the person also loses their capacity for episodic future thinking
acronym
Pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a group of words. The letters of the acronym act as retrieval cues to prompt recall of associated information. E.g ANZAC
acrostic
Phrases in which the first letter of each word function as a cue to help with recall. E.g Never Eat Soggy Weetbix
method of loci
Items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations
sung narrative
Singing allows us to create bigger chunks of information that can be stored in STM
- Auditory adducts of singing said in encoding as the individual associates words with a certain beat, tempo or melody
songline
Memory codes used by aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people that trace journeys and describe how a traveller should respectfully make a journey across country
- Describes landmarks by giving landmarks characteristics witting the song, encoding them further
story sharing
approaching learning through narrative. We connect through the stories we share
Learning maps
explicitly mapping/visualising processes. We picture our pathways of knowledge
non-verbal
applying intra-personal and kinaesthetic skills to thinking and learning. We see, think, act, make and share without words
symbols and images
Using images and metaphors to understand concepts and content. We keep and are knowledge with art and objects
land links
Place-based learning, linking content to local land and place. We work with lessons from land and nature
non-linear
Producing innovations and understanding by thinking laterally or combining systems. We put different ideas together and create new knowledge
deconstruct/reconstruct
Modelling and scaffolding, working from wholes to parts (watch then do).
community links
Entering local viewpoints, applying learning for community benefit. We bring new knowledge home to help our mob
spinal reflex
Involuntary and unconscious response to a stimulus involving the spinal cord and without input from the brain
spinal reflex steps
- sensory receptors respond to the stimulation
- send message that is carried by the sensory neurons to interneurons in the spinal cord
- interneurons in the spinal cord relay the message to motor neurons
- motor neurons carry the message along a motor pathway to the muscles causing a withdrawal reflex. The hand is moved away before pain is perceived
- While the spinal reflex occurs, sensory neurons are also carrying the message further up the spinal cord to the brain
- The message is received in the brain (the area that processes this type of sensory info) and pain is perceived
neurotransmitter
chemicals produced by neutrons that carry messages to other neurons or cells within the nervous system
neuromodulator
subclass of neurotransmitters that alter the strength of neural transmission by increasing or decreasing the responsiveness of neurons to neurotransmitter signals
dopamine
multifunctional neurotransmitter with both excitatory and inhibitory effects that is involved in many CNS functions such as pleasure, movement, attention, mood, cognition and motivation
dopamine and reward pathway
- The reward pathway refers to a group of structures in the brain that are activated by rewarding or reinforcing stimuli.
- Controls our responses to natural rewards (food, sex, social interactions)
- When we are exposed to these rewarding stimuli, the brain increases the release of dopamine along this reward pathway in the brain, which modulate the brain activity of the structures along with it
- The more dopamine release within the reward centre, the more a stimulus is sensed as a reward
serotonin
An inhibitory neurotransmitter that also acts as a neuromodulator. In the brain, it modulates virtually all human behavioural processes, (e.g mood perception, reward)
serotonin pathway
Originates in the brainstem and extends to almost all areas of the cerebrum including the cerebral cortex
sprouting
the creation of new extensions on a neutron allows it to make new connections with other neurons. This occurs through the growth of nerve endings (‘sprouts’) on axons or dendrites.
rerouting
New connections are made between neurons to create alternate neural pathways. These alternate ‘routes’ may be entirely new neural pathways or connection to other pathways in the brain
pruning
The elimination of weak, ineffective or unused synapses (and therefore connections to other neurons). Experience determines which synapses will be retained and strengthened and which will be pruned
agonist
Increase the effect of a neurotransmitter
antagonist
slow down the effects of a neurotransmitter
communication between the ENS and brain
Enteric NS communicates with the brain via afferent (sensory) nerves to the brain and efferent (motor) nerves from the brain
vagus nerve
Connects the brain (CNS) to the organs within the ANS.
- Afferent info is sent via the vagus nerve from the gut to the brain, e.g you are full, stop eating
- Efferent info is sent via the vagus nerve from the brain to the gut, e.g start secreting acid food coming
GBA and GABA
Some microbiota produce GABA
- Less of this certain microbiota = less GABA
- Less GABA = more anxiety + depression symptoms
Selye’s GAS model
stress is a non-specific condition, brought on by internal or external stressors and can produce the same reaction (sympathetic NS activated)
alarm reaction
Occurs when the person (or animal) first becomes aware of the stressor
- SHOCK: The body’s ability to deal with the stressor falls below the normal level. The body reacts as if it were injured, temperature drops, people are most vulnerable to fainting and heart attacks.
- COUNTER SHOCK: The sympathetic NS is activated (fight-flight response), body’s resistance to stressors increases. Adrenaline is released into the bloodstream, heart and respiratory system rates increase = more energy for muscles
resistance
The body’s resistance to stressor rises above normal
- All unnecessary physiological processes are shut down (digestion, menstruation, testosterone production)
- Cortisol released into bloodstream - energises the body
- Cortisol weakens immune system activity
- Ability to deal with initial stressor increases, resistance to other stressors decreases (illness/disease)
exhaustion
Due to prolonged stress, the body’s resources have been depleted and it becomes vulnerable to diseases and mental disorders
- Extreme fatigue, high levels of anxiety
- ‘Wear and tear’ due to immune suppression and prolonged levels of cortisol in the bloodstream
strengths of GAS model
- Suggests predictable pattern of responses (easily tested)
- Identifies various biological processes part of the stress response
- One of the first theories to suggest stress can weaken the body’s resistance to illness
weaknesses of GAS
- Humans and rats are physiologically different (cant be generalised)
- Doesn’t account for individual differences in stress responses
Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional model for stress and coping
Stress involves an encounter (transaction) between an individual and their external environment, and the stress response depends upon the individuals interpretation (appraisal) of the stressor and their ability to cope with it
primary appraisal
Primary appraisal : Individuals evaluate/judge the significance of the situation/event
A) IRRELEVANT, BENIGN-POSITIVE or STRESSFUL
B)
- HARM/LOSS: how much damage has already occurred
- THREAT: what harm/loss may occur in the future
- CHALLENGE: assessment of personal gain/growth from the situation
secondary appraisal
Individuals evaluate their coping options/resources for dealing with the stressful situation
strengths of L & F model
- Acknowledges the psychological determinants or causes of the stress response
- Emphasises the personal nature and individuality of the stress response, accounting for individual differences
limitations of L & F model
- Difficult to test through experimental research because of subjective nature of individual responses to stress
- Individuals may not always be consciously aware of all the factors causing them stress or the thought processes that take place internally when experiencing stress
- Doesn’t allow for individual variation in progression through its stages as primary and secondary appraisals have been found to interact with one another and often occur simultaneously
coping
A process involving cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external stressors that are appraised as taxing or exceeding our resources in a stressful situation
coping strategy
a specific method, behavioural or psychological, that people use to manage or reduce the stress produced by the stressor
coping flexibility
The ability to effectively adjust one’s coping strategies according to the demand of different stressful situations
individuals with high coping flexibility
Quickly recognise and adjust their coping strategies if they are ineffective. These individuals use a wider variety of coping strategies across situations, and match the strategies to the demands of the situations
individuals with low coping flexibility
Tend to rely on the same, limited coping strategies across different situations, and persist with them, even if they are ineffective
Context specific effectiveness
When there is a match between the coping strategy used and the stressful situation
