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Nervous Systems Flashcards

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1
Q

central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord

Processes info received from our internal and external environment and activates appropriate responses

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2
Q

brain

A

a complex structure that receives and processes sensory stimuli from the body and coordinates responses, including voluntary movements, emotions and conscious thought.

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3
Q

spinal cord

A

dense bundle of nerve tissue that runs from the brainstem to the lower middle section of the spine

Two major functions:

  • Receive sensory information from the body (via the PNS) and send to the brain for processing
  • Receive motor information from the brain and send it to body (via the PNS), to control muscles, glands, organs
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4
Q

damage to the spinal cord

A

If the spinal cord is severed, the somatic nervous system below the point of severance becomes paralysed because the “bridge” between the CNS and the PNS can not be crossed

  • Such damage has permanent consequences because the nerves in the spinal cord can not regenerate (grow back)
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5
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

the entire network of nerves located outside the CNS (autonomic and somatic).

  • carries messages between the CNS and the muscles, organs and glands throughout the body.
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6
Q

somatic nervous system (def, sensory function and motor function)

A

carries sensory (afferent) info to the CNS and motor (efferent) info to the body

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7
Q

autonomic

A

is a sub-division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s internal environment in an autonomous or self-regulated manner.

occurs without conscious/voluntary effort

E.g digestion, heart rate, respiration

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8
Q

sympathetic

A

Activates internal muscles, glands and organs to prepare the body to deal with vigorous activity or a stressful/threatening situation

Activated by a stressor or fear stimulus
- Enhances survival by producing an immediate response –“fight or flight”

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9
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

In times of minimal stress and in the absence of threat, helps to maintain the internal body environment in a steady, balanced state

Counterbalances the activities of the sympathetic system.

Restores the body to a state of calm (homeostasis)

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10
Q

enteric

A

A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system; it consists of nerve cells lining the gastrointestinal tract and controls the digestive system

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11
Q

conscious response

A

any response that requires awareness
The response will usually be a voluntary, ‘intentional’ reaction

E.g scratching an itch, throwing a ball etc

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12
Q

unconscious response

A

any response that does not require awareness

It is involuntary, unintentional, and automatic and we cannot ordinarily control its occurrence

E.g shivering, sneezing, spinal reflex

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13
Q

spinal reflex

A

An unconscious, involuntary and automatically occurring response to certain stimuli without any involvement of the brain

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14
Q

steps of spinal reflex

A

Eg: touching a sharp object

  1. sensory receptors respond to the stimulation
  2. send message that is carried by the sensory neurons to interneurons in the spinal cord
  3. interneurons in the spinal cord relay the message to motor neurons
  4. motor neurons carry the message along a motor pathway to the muscles causing a withdrawal reflex. The hand is moved away before pain is perceived
  5. While the spinal reflex occurs, sensory neurons are also carrying the message further up the spinal cord to the brain
  6. The message is received in the brain (the area that processes this type of sensory info) and pain is perceived
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15
Q

neurotransmitters

A

A chemical substance produced by neurons that carries messages to other neurons or cells within the nervous system, including; muscles, organs and glands. (Excitatory and Inhibitory)

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16
Q

excitatory neurotransmitter

A

increase the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an action potential or neural impulse
E.g Glutamate

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17
Q

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

decrease the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an action potential or neural impulse
E.g GABA

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18
Q

glutamate

A

the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system and is associated with enhanced learning and memory

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19
Q

GABA

A

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter

fine-tunes neurotransmission in the brain and maintains neurotransmission at an optimal, or ‘best possible’, level.

Associated with anxiety, specific phobias and Parkinson’s disease

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20
Q

Glutamate and learning

A

stimulates connections between neurons.

Glutamate is released when a neural pathway associated with an experience is activated or stimulated.

E.g: as you read and form a memory, glutamate will be released in the neural pathway associated with this concept in your brain.

Each time you retrieve this memory, this pathway will probably be strengthened and if you don’t this neural pathway will probably become weaker over time

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21
Q

agonist

A

mimic the effect of a neurotransmitter. E.g. a GABA agonist may make it MORE likely that GABA inhibits neurotransmission

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22
Q

antagonist

A

slow down the effects of a neurotransmitter. E.g.
a GABA antagonist will reduce its inhibitory effect

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23
Q

neuromodulator

A

a subclass of neurotransmitters that alter the strength of neural transmission, by increasing or decreasing the responsiveness of neurons to neurotransmitter signals.

E.g Dopamine and serotonin (can work together)

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24
Q

dopamine

A

a multifunctional neurotransmitter with both excitatory and inhibitory effects that is involved in many CNS functions such as pleasure, movement, attention, mood, cognition and motivation.

Dopamine is a neuromodulator because it reinforces the neural activity in regions of the brain associated with these functions

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25
Q

Dopamine and the reward pathway

A

The reward pathway refers to a group of structures in the brain that are activated by rewarding or reinforcing stimuli

Controls our responses to natural rewards e.g food, sex, social interactions, and an important determinant of motivation.

When we are exposed to these rewarding stimuli, the brain increases the release of dopamine along this reward pathway in the brain, which modulates the brain activity of the structures along it.

The more dopamine released within the reward centre, the more a stimulus is sensed as a reward

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26
Q

influence of dopamine - thirst

A

Dopamine release is coupled with the gulping motion and drinking behaviour (drinking is a learned behaviour)

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27
Q

influence of dopamine - hunger and eating

A

The consumption of food releases dopamine and gives us feelings of pleasure, therefore increasing our chances of eating food the next time we experience hunger

The brain receives signals from several hormones that indicate when food is needed or not. These signals modify dopamine output from the brain’s reward pathway, controlling our motivation for food

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28
Q

influence of dopamine - addiction

A

Whenever we see a reward worth chasing, our brain produces higher levels of dopamine, motivating us to complete the task, no matter how unhealthy or difficult the task might be.

Theory suggests that most addictions are caused by the brain’s inability to produce dopamine naturally without the behaviour or the substance that someone is addicted to

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29
Q

seratonin

A

an inhibitory neurotransmitter that also acts as a neuromodulator.

In the brain, it modulates virtually all human behavioural processes, (e.g. mood, perception, reward)

The serotonin pathway originates in the brainstem and extends to almost all areas of the cerebrum including the cerebral cortex

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30
Q

influence of serotonin - mood

A
  • serotonin levels are high = mood improves
  • However, there are a lot of other chemical processes happening in the body, so it is difficult to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.

balanced serotonin levels = calm, focused, happy and stable moods

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31
Q

influence of serotonin - sleep

A
  • lower levels of serotonin = disruptive rhythm of being awake and asleep
  • Research generally shows that if the brain lacks serotonin, a person will have a reduced pressure to sleep when required, thus increasing restlessness and wakefulness when they should be sleeping
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32
Q

influence of serotonin - aggression and impulsivity

A
  • higher serotonin level = people waiting longer for rewards, thus reducing impulsivity.
  • Research indicates that low levels of serotonin in the brain can affect communication between specific structures within the limbic system responsible for regulating emotions, increasing aggressive and violent behaviours
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33
Q

learning

A

involves the acquisition of new information, behaviour or abilities through experience.

For learning to have occurred, the new knowledge or skill must be retained in memory

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34
Q

Herbs rule

A

HERBS RULE = NEURONS THAT FIRE TOGETHER, WIRE TOGETHER

  • When a neurotransmitter is repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap, pre and postsynaptic neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time
  • This changes the structure of the synapse, strengthening the connection between these two neurons at the synapse
  • When this connection is strengthened, they are more likely to fire together again, and their signals are more efficient in the future
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35
Q

long term potentiation

A

the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective synaptic transmission

The effect of LTP is to improve the ability of two neurons to communicate with each other

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36
Q

long term depression

A

the opposite of LTP.
LTD is a long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission
This results from lack of stimulation of pre and postsynaptic neurons, or prolonged low-level stimulation

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37
Q

sprouting

A

The creation of new extensions on a neuron allows it to make new connections with other neurons. This occurs through the growth of nerve endings (‘sprouts’) on axons or dendrites

38
Q

rerouting

A

New connections are made between neurons to create alternate neural pathways.
These alternate ‘routes’ may be entirely new neural pathways or connections to other pathways in the brain

39
Q

pruning

A

The elimination of weak, ineffective or unused synapses (and therefore connections to other neurons).
Experience determines which synapses will be retained and strengthened and which will be pruned

40
Q

stress

A

a psychobiological process,
a state of mental, emotional and physiological tension in response to a stressor

41
Q

stressor

A

any event that causes stress or is perceived as a threat and a challenge to our ability to cope

42
Q

internal stressors

A

originates within an individual
can be both psychological and biological
E.g: Physical pain, having high expectations of yourself, feelings etc

43
Q

external stressor

A

originate outside of an individual including environmental and sociocultural events
E.g: Loud noises, extreme temperatures, loss of significant relationships etc

44
Q

acute stress

A

occurs because of a sudden threat and lasts for a relatively short time. E.g sitting an exam

  • Acute stress can have negative effects such as elevated blood pressure or reduced motivation to persist with a task, but it can also be beneficial (e.g. releasing adrenaline).
  • linked with the FIGHT-FLIGHT-FREEZE response
45
Q

chronic stress

A

stress that continuesfor a prolonged period of time.

  • Itinvolves ongoing demands, pressuresand worries that are constant and long-lasting.
  • Chronic stress is linked with therelease of cortisol, and larger effectson both our psychological and physicalwellbeing
46
Q

acute stress - fight, flight, freeze

A

Without our awareness or conscious control, we respond to an immediate threat by activating the fight-or-flight-or-freeze response.

It is an acute physiological stress response and is considered to be adaptive, in that it minimises possible harm, and enables us to deal with the stressor most effectively by instinctively adopting one of three options.

In fight or flight responses, you experience similar physiological responses, such asincreased heart rate, sweaty palms and dilated pupils as a part of an acute stressresponse. This is because the fight or flight response is activated by thesympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system

47
Q

benefits of increased heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure

A

To quickly transport oxygenated blood to the muscles in our extremities to prepare them for action

48
Q

benefits of dilated pupils

A

to increase the amount of light entering the eye to potentially see more clearly

49
Q

benefits of slowed digestion rate and decreased salivation

A

to divert energy to where it is needed most, such as the muscles in our extremities

50
Q

benefits if increased sweat production

A

To keep the body cool when increased energy is expended

51
Q

benefits of increased muscle tension

A

to prepare our muscles for action

52
Q

acute stress - freeze response

A

thought tohave adaptive value.

When attacked by apredator, some animals freeze or ‘playdead’.
It is also thought that freezing is away for the nervous system to prepare toimmediately shift into fight or flightaction.

Freezing is not considered to be apassive state but rather aparasympathetic brake on certain bodysystems

53
Q

chronic stress - cortisol

A

In times of prolonged and chronic stress, another stress hormonecalled cortisol is produced and released fromthe adrenal cortex, the outer layer of theadrenal glands.

Cortisol allows the body tocontinue to stay on high alert over longperiods of time and regulates a wide rangeof processes throughout the body, includingmetabolism and the immune response.

It isreleased directly into the bloodstream andtransported throughout the body

54
Q

benefits of cortisol

A
  • boosting our energy levels
  • heightening our alertness
  • increasing the body’s ability to repair tissue
  • diverting energy from non-essential bodily functions
55
Q

negative implications of cortisol

A

Cortisol suppresses the immune system, making us more susceptible to colds and contagious illnesses.

When we experience ongoing chronic stress, our risk of cancer and autoimmune diseases, as well as psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression, increases

56
Q

The Gut-Brain Axis

A

refers to the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS).

this relationship is bidirectional

E.g, feeling “sick to your stomach -> emotions affecting our gut

57
Q

communication between the ENS and the brain

A
  • enteric NS communicates with the brain via afferent (sensory) nerves (to the brain)and efferent (motor) nerves (from the brain).
  • occurs via thevagusnerveandgut microbiota.
58
Q

vagus nerve

A

connects the brain (CNS) to organs within the ANS

afferent info is sent via the vagus nerve from the gut to the brain, e.g you are full, stop eating

efferent info is sent via the vagus nerve from the brain to the gut, e.g start secreting acid, food coming

59
Q

gut microbiota

A

includes over 1000 types of microbe species that are in our gut

these microbes get nutrients from the food we eat and can produce energy, nutrients and in some cases, neurotransmitters

60
Q

gut-brain axis and GABA

A

Somemicrobiota produce GABA.

less of this certain microbiota = less GABA

less GABA = more anxiety + depression symptoms

61
Q

stress, gut microbiota and our nervous system

A
  • stress causes changes in gut microbiota anddeficiencies in certain bacteria, which have beenlinked to anxiety and depression
  • specific gut microbiota associated with stress hasbeen shown to increase anxiety-relatedbehaviours
  • stress exposure early in life or in adulthood canchange an organism’s microbiota composition
  • the types and variety of microbe populations wehave in our gut can shape our stress responsiveness
  • treatment with healthy microbiota can reduceanxiety-likebehaviourand reduce stressresponsiveness in humans and mice.
62
Q

Selye’s GAS Model

A
  • Selye – stress is a non-specific condition, brought on byinternal or external stressors and can produce the samereaction (sympathetic nervous system activated)
  • Selye’s research was conducted with rats and heobserved that despite the variety of stressors rats wereexposed to, the physiological arousal pattern wasgenerally the same
63
Q

Selye emphasised 2 elements when describing GAS

A
  • It is non-specific, meaning it is the same irrespective ofthe type of stressor the organism is exposed to.
  • It is identical within all members of a species, in his caserats.
64
Q

stage 1

A
  • Alarm Reaction– occurs when the person (or animal) first becomesaware of the stressor.

Experienced in 2 stages: shock and countershock

65
Q

stage 1: shock

A

the body’s ability to deal with the stressor falls belowthe normal level. The body reacts as if it were injured, body temperaturedrops. People are most vulnerable in this stage (fainting, heartattacks)

66
Q

stage 1: counter shock

A

the sympathetic nervous system is activated (fight-flight response), body’s resistance to stressors increases. Adrenaline isreleased into the bloodstream, heart and respiratory system ratesincrease = more energy for muscles (glucose, oxygen)

If the stress is not dealt with immediately and continues, we enterthe Resistance Stage

67
Q

stage 2

A

Resistance– the body’s resistance to the stressor rises abovenormal

  • Intense arousal of alarm reaction diminishes, and physiologicalarousal remains above normal. All unnecessaryphysiological processes are shut down – (digestion,menstruation, testosterone production)
  • Cortisol released into the bloodstream –energisesthebody
  • However, cortisol weakens immune system activity
  • Ability to deal with the initial stressor in this stageincreases, however resistance to other stressors maydecline (illness/disease).
68
Q

stage 3

A

Exhaustion –
- Due to the prolonged stress, the body’s resources have been depletedand it becomes vulnerable to diseases and mental disorders

  • extreme fatigue, high levels of anxiety, nightmares,impaired sexual performance, hypertension, gastrointestinal problemsand heart disease
  • ‘Wear and tear’ due to immune suppression and prolonged levels ofcortisol in the bloodstream as cortisol interferes with the body’s abilityto fight disease and protect itself
69
Q

scARE

A

Shock
Countershock
Alarm reaction
Resistance
Exhaustion

70
Q

strengths of the GAS model

A
  • The model suggests a predictable pattern of responses that can easily be tested in a lab, identifies various biological processes that occur as a part of the stress response (hormone secretion and immune system depletion)
  • It is one of the first theories to suggest that stress can weaken the body’s resistance to illness.
  • There is research and evidence to suggest that the three stages of GAS exist and that the body’s non-specific response to a stressor is a physiological reality (at least in rats).
71
Q

limitations of the GAS model

A
  • Humans and rats are physiologically different. E.g, human stress responses tend to be more complex and variable. Therefore, Selye’s GAS model cannot be simply generalised to humans
  • It does not account for individual differences in stress responses. E.g, many different types of disorders are associated with high-stress levels, such as hypertension (high blood pressure), post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression.
72
Q

Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping

A
  • Stress involves an encounter (transaction)between an individual and their external environment,and the stress response depends upon theindividual’s interpretation (appraisal) of the stressorand their ability to cope with it
  • The environment can influence the individual, the individual can influence the environment
  • When there is an imbalance between a person’s appraisal of the demands of the situation and their estimation to meet those demands = stress response
73
Q

primary appraisal

A

In the primary appraisal, individuals evaluate/judge thesignificance of the situation/event

a)Make a decision about the event: is it irrelevant,benign-positive or stressful

b)If the situation is stressful, additional appraisals takeplace:

  • Harm/loss: how much damage has already occurred
  • Threat: what harm/loss may occur in the future
  • Challenge: assessment of personal gain/growth fromthe situation
74
Q

secondary appraisal

A

In the Secondary Appraisal,individuals evaluate their copingoptions/resources, and options fordealing with the stressful situation

For example, if somebody hasdecided that an upcoming SAC is astressful situation, their copingresources are their teacher,studying, etc.

Coping options and resources canbe internal or external

75
Q

Strengths of L&F transactional model of stress and coping

A
  • the model acknowledges the psychological determinants or causes of the stress response
  • it emphasises the personal nature and individuality of the stress response, accounting for why individual responses to an event vary widely
  • it suggests that because stress involves an interaction with the environment, the individual has an active role in their own stress response and can therefore learn to respond and manage it
  • the model allows for the fact that stressors and the circumstances under which they occur can change over time and that our thinking about a stressor and our response to it can also change
76
Q

Limitations of L&F transactional model of stress and coping

A
  • It is difficult to test through experimental research because of the subjective nature of individual responses to stress
  • Individuals may not always be consciously aware of all the factors causing them stress or the thought processes that take place internally when experiencing stress
  • It does not allow for individual variation in progression through its stages, as primary and secondary appraisals have been found to interact with one another and often occur simultaneously
77
Q

coping

A

a process involving cognitive andbehaviouralefforts to manage specific internaland/or external stressors that are appraised astaxing or exceeding our resources in a stressfulsituation

78
Q

coping strategy

A

a specific method,behaviouralor psychological, that people use to manage orreduce the stress produced by the stressor.

79
Q

whether the coping strategy works or not is influenced by 2 factors

A
  • coping flexibility
  • context-specific effectiveness
80
Q

coping flexibility

A

The ability to effectively adjust one’s copingstrategies according to the demands of differentstressful situations

The more flexible our selection of coping strategies= more effective coping and greater wellbeing

Includes the ability to:

  • Recognisewhether a flexible coping approach issuitable for a specific situation
  • Recognisewhen coping strategies are not effectiveand discontinue it
  • Implement an alternative coping strategy whenrequired
81
Q

individuals with high coping flexibility

A

quickly recognise and adjust their coping strategies if they are ineffective. These individuals tend to use a wider variety of coping strategies across situations, and match the strategies to the demands of the situation

82
Q

individuals with low coping flexibility

A

tend to rely on the same, limited coping strategies across different situations, and persist with them, even if they are ineffective. Essentially, these individuals are not flexible and are predictable when dealing with stress

83
Q

context-specific effectiveness

A

when there is a match between thecoping strategy that is used and thestressful situation

  • Eg: Taking positive action to deal witha stressor in some contexts would beeffective, whereas wishful thinking ormentally distancing themselves fromthe stress may be effective in othercontexts
84
Q

approach and avoidance strategies

A

‘approach’ and ‘avoidance’ refer to the orientation or focus of an individual’s activity either towards or away from the stressor. The aim of both approach and avoidance strategies is to reduce stress levels and increase the ability to cope, but the method by which this is achieved differs.

85
Q

approach strategies

A

involve confronting the stressor directly
E.g
- seeking advice from anexpert
- talking through yourproblems with a friend orfamily member
- accepting responsibilityfor a problem orreframing a situation
- developing a plan toincrease your sense ofcontrol

86
Q

avoidance coping strategies

A

involve evading a stressor and dealing with it indirectly
E.g
- procrastination
- napping oroversleeping
- substance use orabuse
- denial
- use of distractionssuch as television orcomputer games.

87
Q

approach strategy benefits

A
  • approach strategies are generally considered to be more adaptive and effective than avoidance strategies
  • people who rely more on approach strategies to cope with a stressor tend to experience fewer psychological symptoms and can function more effectively than people who rely more on avoidance strategies
88
Q

approach strategy limitations

A
  • initially or in the short term, approach strategies may increase stress levels while the individual is directly engaged with the stressor and its causes
  • an approach strategy may require a lot of the individual’s energy and focus to deal with the stressor, which means they might neglect other aspects of their lives
89
Q

avoidance strategy benefits

A
  • it allows you to conserve energy to focus on other stressors that can be changed
  • ignoring a stressor for a couple of days while focusing on other things can provide ‘time out’ from a stressor while minimising potential stress from another source
90
Q

avoidance strategy limitations

A
  • avoidance strategies tend to be maladaptive
  • excessive reliance on avoidance strategies tend to be associated with several negative consequences, e.g increased vulnerability to mental health problems and stress-related physical problems, such as hypertension and cardiovascular disease
  • long-term use of avoidance strategies can also contribute to other problems, e.g delinquency, socially inappropriate behaviours and substance use
  • the strategies tend to only be helpful in the short term, and their long-term use can prevent people from responding to stressors in constructive ways
  • delaying actually dealing with a stressor can also have negative consequences and might be detrimental when action is needed
91
Q

exercise as a coping strategy

A
  • Physical activity that is usually planned and performed to improve/maintain physical condition
  • Physical activity (aerobic is best) = good mental health/wellbeing
  • Exercise increases energy demands – uses up the stress hormones (cortisol) in the bloodstream
  • Endorphins are produced during exercise, this (with serotonin and dopamine) improves mood
  • Regular exercise reduces the reactivity of the sympathetic nervous system
92
Q

why is exercise an avoidance strategy?

A

exercise is usually an avoidance strategy because it does not directly deal with the stressor a person is facing. However, this is not the case when the stressor is exercise related. E.g wanting to lose weight or training for a marathon

Psychology (6 decks)

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