Problem 5 Flashcards
1
Q
WISC IQ interpretation
A
- how well you can learn and what you know and can do
- relation between IQ and school is not perfect
- indicates strong and weak skills
- focus on school based skills: not just potential
2
Q
Special Needs Schools (NL)
A
- 4 clusters
- cluster 3: physical or mental disability, long term illness (somatic)
3
Q
Where would gifted children go in the dutch system
A
VWO
4
Q
Characteristics of giftedness in NL
A
- 111-130 IQ (gifted): can do many things very well, better than age group
- IQ greater than 130 (very gifted: extremely high level of knowledge)
5
Q
Traditional view of giftedness
A
- greater than 130 IQ
- better than their age group by a lot
- extremely high level of knowledge
-can do many things extremely well - even if IQ is lower than 130 high ability remains
6
Q
Perspectives on Giftedness
A
- reflects values of society
- typically manifested in actual outcomes (especially but not exclusively in adulthood)
- domain specific
- combination of biological, pedagogical, psychological and psychosocial factors
- relative not just to the ordinary (peers) but also to the
exceptional
7
Q
Renzuli
A
- interaction between three clusters of traits
1. above average general abilities (so IQ not yet superior)
2. high levels of task commitment (perseverance)
3. high levels of creativity - application to any valuable area of peformance
- not just talent but also commitment and creativity
- focus on exceptional behavior
- they are acc children with special needs
8
Q
Gardner’s Intelligence Model
A
- u learn this in CDP
- appropriate cultural setting can activate: teachers should present lessons through music, field trips, hands on work etc.
- focus on innate capacities but these activate in the right setting
- biopsychological potential to process info
- Influential yet not well-researched but many theories recognize more
domains of excellence…
9
Q
Sternberg: Successful Intelligence
A
- more complex than g
- one’s ability to set and accomplish personally meaningful goals, given one’s cultural context
10
Q
Sternberg Evaluation
A
Creative: generate novel and useful ideas
Analytical: to ascertain that the ideas he/she has (and that
others have) are good ones
Practical: to apply those ideas and convince others of their
value
Wise: to ensure that implementation of the ideas will help
ensure a common good through the mediation of positive
ethical principles.
11
Q
Background Sternberg: mental processes needed
for the 4 strengths and weaknesses
A
Metacomponents/higher order executive processes:
Plan, monitor, and evaluate courses of thinking and action. Metacomponents:
recognizing the existence of a problem, defining the nature of the problem,
and mentally representing information about the problem
Performance components:
Problem analysis and implement the instructions of the metacomponents.
Performance components: inferring relations and applying relations
Knowledge-acquisition components:
Learn how to solve problems in the first place. Selective encoding (deciding
what information is relevant/not relevant) and selective comparison (deciding
what prior information stored in memory is relevant: transfer!)
Sternberg: more focus on information processing yet also creativity (see
Renzuli, 1978) and on realizing potential
12
Q
Multiple factor model of giftedness
A
- personal factors: high capacities, motivation, creativity
- environmental factors: school, family, friends
- dynamic model: changes possible!
- interaction between personal and environmental factors determine the effect of capacities on behaviour
13
Q
Definition of Giftedness
A
- (High) Ability (IQ score > 130 or above average) is necessary but not
sufficient for developing special talent (Sternberg & Davidson, 2005) - New domains: additional opportunities for manifestation/development talent and eminence
CCSP Snellings 2025
14
Q
Mega-model of talent development
A
Integration of previously discussed models
- Focus is on Development
- Interest and commitment to a domain are essential (Ceci & Williams, 2010)
- Gifted achievement and eminence depend on appropriate
teaching/coaching of psychosocial skills (persistence and exertion of effort)
(e.g. Gagné, 2005): so needs time investment!
- Percentage of eminent adults is smaller than children with gifted potential
- Developmental periods for recognition of potential and eminence differ
across domains (e.g sport and science)
- Transitions across stages (esp. Later ones) function of developed
psychosocial skills (think of growth (process) vs fixed (outcome) mindset)
Mega-model of Talent development
(Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011)
Domains differ in performance trajectories for outstanding performance
(start, peak, end)
Giftedness is relative to others at each stage:
-1st stage potential/2nd stage demonstrated achievement/3rd final stage
eminent levels of achievement
Transitions are central: abilities => competencies => expertise =>
eminence
Talent development process: expert teachers/coaches need to use
different strategies at each stage
Transitions can be enhanced or delimited by Personal or Environmental
factors.
-Psychosocial skills: Motivation (See Renzuli, 1978), social skills and
productive mindsets (see Dweck)
-Environmental factors: external and Chance Factors: opportunities offered in
school, cultural capital.
15
Q
Mega Model part 2
A
Type of creativity distinguishes: ability, competence, expertise, eminence
Creativity: the ability to come up with novel and useful ideas or ways of
doing things (see already Renzuli, 1978)
-Creativity in childhood (little c-creativity): independent thinking, entertaining
different perspectives, creation of novel projects and products compared to
peers: person factors such as creative approach and attitude
-Creativity in adulthood (Big c-creativity required for eminence): moving to
process factors (e.g mindsets) and to products (creation of intellectual or
aesthetic or practical products/performance)
CCSP Snellings 2025
16
Q
Mega Model Stages
A
Mega-model of Talent development
(Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011)
At each stage teachers/coaches have different goals/strategies of instruction:
1st stage. Person Engage young people in topic or domain (“”teaching for
falling in love”)
2nd stage. Process Help to develop skills, knowledge and values
(“teaching for technique”)
3rd or final stage. Product Help to develop unique nice, style, method,
area of application (“mentoring for personalized niche”)
17
Q
Current Complementary theories of
Giftedness:
A
Different types of talent (Gardner, 1999; Renzuli, 1978): upper end of
talent domain (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011)
Multidimensional models:
1. differentiate between capacity and performance
2. multiple factors such as personal (e.g. Renzuli, 1978; Subotnik, 2011) and
environmental factors (e.g. Monks & Ypenburg, 1995; Subotnik et al., 2011)
influence gifted performance => Think of bio-ecological model!
3. models are dynamic: changes in family, school or opportunities can change
motivation or skills (Monks & Ypenburg, 1995; Subotnik et al., 2011).
Negative or postive development: from potential to achievement to eminence
(Subotnik et al., 2011)
4. apart from cognitive skill (Sternberg et al., 2010) or other high ability other
skills are needed such as practical skills (Sternberg et al., 2019), social skills
(Subotnik et al., 2011) and creativity (Renzuli, 1978; Subotnik et al.,, 2011)
18
Q
Implications of mega model
A
A child with high IQ can do badly at school…
Cognitive and psychosocial variables are malleable: need to be cultivated
(Subotnik et al, 2011; Renzulli, 1978); all children need to be challenged
Effort and opportunity are important at every stage of talent development
(Subotnik et al., 2011)
19
Q
Diagnosis
A
- school achievement: gifted, hard worker or underachiever?
- achievement tests: objective measures of school skills, yet not sufficient for giftedness (i.e. high motivation vs gifted?)
- intelligence tests: test potential yet be aware of test anxiety, motivation, lack of focus, etc.
- test multidimensional: functional development and social development
- test creativity: drawings, work outside of school
- comorbidity: may mask giftedness
- aim: developmental needs, not just a label!
20
Q
Risks of giftedness for educational success: heuristic with 6 student profiles
A
- Independent
- Successful
- Provocative
- Dodging
- Learning and behavioural problems
- Drop-out
21
Q
Ideal profile
A
School results = capacities
Works independently
Good social skills
No affirmation needed
Sets personal targets
Risk taking: not afraid to fail or growth mindset (See Dweck
and lecture CDP)
22
Q
Less optimal profile
A
Good school results (room for improvement)
Perfectionistic
Needs affirmation teacher
Avoids risks: fixed mindset (See Dweck and Lecture CDP)
Tries not to stand out in the group
CCSP Snellings 2025
23
Q
Drop-out profile
A
Skips classes
Does not complete tasks
Looks for challenge outside of school (important for diagnosis)
Disruptive behaviour in class
Underachieves in relation to age norm
24
Q
Learning and behavioural problems profile
A
Underachieves: in relation to age norm
Disrupts class
25
Provocative profile
Corrects teachers
Bad inhibition (as in ADHD yet different cause)
Critical about rules
Competitive
Honest and direct
26
Dodging Profile
Denies being gifted
Avoids a challenge
Wants to belong to the group
27
School programme
- giftedness must be developed and sustained by training in domain specific skills
- acquisition of psychological and social skills needed
28
Acceleration Approach
i.e. skip class, positive effects, compact teaching methods instead of repetition
29
Enrichment Approach
- more in depth and broaden knowledge (within class), no formal evaluation, presumably useful for all students
30
Special School Programmes
Approach: Leave regular group occasionally for ‘Plusklas’ or
special gifted school or pull-out 1 day a week
Possible drawback: distance with regular class and content
less contact with peers so possibly social-emotional coaching
needed
Other drawback: not the best anymore => Challenge or stress
“big fish small pond”
Depends on child: conformist or independent?
Renzulli school/Day a week school: social emotional benefits
(think of models of environmental influences: acceptance,
stimulating environment)
CCSP Snellings 2025
31
Mental Disabilities
- Intelligence is relative to age group and talent develops so this
applies also in the case of mental disabilities!!! => see
giftedness and models about interaction with environment
- Low academic functioning: Number of hours of education
more important than cognitive defects
32
Definition of mental Disability
ID: IQ below approximately 70 and associated deficits in
adaptive functioning
Prevalence 1% to 3%
33
Important information on the definition of mental disabilities
- IQ cutoff scores (+-70),
- deficits in
adaptive functioning (communication, social participation and
independent living)
- age of onset (before 18)
34
DSM-5 criteria for mental disabilities
IQ 65-75, limitations adaptive functioning, onset
before 18, specifiers for severity levels: mild, moderate,
severe and profound
35
Educational system (IDEA)
eligible for special education if
delay of 35% or more in cognitive, motor, speech/language,
social/emotional, adaptive functioning or 25% in 2 or more
developmental areas
36
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities (AAIDD)
degree and nature of support required is
central. Intermittent, limited, extensive or pervasive: proper
supports enhances functioning and quality of life
37
Definition of borderline mental disability
- Criterium 1: IQ 70-85 (“Licht Verstandelijk Beperkt” or “LVB”):
so also higher than 65-75!
- Criterium 2: Serious deficits in adaptive behaviour at > 2
domains: communication, selfcare, social/relational skills
- NJI (National Youth Institute): in addition to limited social
adaptive skills, problems such as Learning problems,
Psychiatric disorders, physical problems, family problems and
in social surroundings
38
Diagnosis adaptive behaviour
(Criterium 2)
Practical skills: selfcare (“zelfverzorging”), independent living
(“zelfstandig wonen”)
Social cognition: Language pragmatics, Theory of Mind, social
adaptation skills
Problems with conceptual/communicative skills: Language
comprehension, Attention, Executive functioning, Integration
of information and memory
39
Level IQ determines severity
handicap
Depending on level IQ score in range 50-85 => if lower level
then more general developmental delays
Higher level in the IQ score range 50-85 => social adaptive
skills more important for handicap
CCSP Snellings 2025
40
Mental disabilities and School: tackle underlying
problems
IDEA (2004): Integrating children with ID as much as possible in regular
classes: so ‘mainstreaming’ or inclusion
Netherlands: LVB in Secondary school: Cluster 3 or ‘Praktijkschool’
(practical skills; cannot attain a VMBO)
Take into account strength-weakness profile in instruction: match with
individual needs for education: instruction, teaching content, time on task,
feedback, teaching approaches etc.!!!!!
What are underlying factors and take these into account (e.g emotion
recognition and interpretation skills: predict social information processing,
Vignette study: Nieuwenhuijzen & Vriens, 2011)
Determine limited learning abilities and possibilities for each
developmental domain
Focused approach to avoid risk of=> frustration =>, behavioural problems,
learned helplessness, anxiety for failing/negative self concept
41
42
Defining Giftedness
1. ability is a prerequisite but does not guarantee exceptional talent
2. true passion and commitment to a particular field are crucial for attaining gifted status and achieving eminence
3. achieving giftedness relies on the effective teaching of psychosocial skills such as persistence, which requires a considerable investment of time
4. the proportion of eminent adults is significantly lower than that of gifted children
5. recognition of potential and eminence differs based on developmental stages and specific domains
6. the transition to adulthood is heavily influenced by the psychosocial skills that have been developed
43
What does giftedness include?
1. alignment with societal values
2. demonstration through tangible outcomes, especially in adulthood
4. specificity to certain domains
4. influence from biological, educational, psychological and psychosocial factors
5. relativity to both average and exceptional standards
44
Role of Educators, Scholars and Policymakers: contrasting attitudes
1. the idea that gifted children can thrive without specialized support -> inconsistent funding
2. perception that gifted programs only benefit high SES kids -> elitism accusations
3. a school culture that prioritizes sports and arts achievements over academic success
4. acceptance of negative stereotypes about gifted individuals
45
Can gifted children make it on their own?
- no, external support systems are necessary for gifted students to thrive
46
Matthew Effect
- where those already meeting proficiency standards gain further advantages from advanced curricula, motivated peers and specialized educators
47
Importance of integrating giftedness into psychology literature
1. addressing negative stereotypes -> negative stereotypes can influence student's decisions and incorrect positive stereotypes provide misinformation on the role of effort for gifted kids
2. addressing social needs of future innovators etc. which benefits humanity as a whole
3. addressing inequalities in opportunity bcs gifted kids are often bored, broader access and funding can mitigate inequalities
4. generalizing from findings with gifted populations can contribute to understanding important psychological constructs
5. addressing major educational issues can solve education problems facing society, including underachievement of minority children, inequalities in opportunity etc.
6. insights into academic-talent dervelopment from understanding performance trajectories can help ensure that academic talent is as respected as other talents, recognising hard work can promote full development of talent
48
Ability and Giftedness
- significant amount of evidence supports it but it is still highly debated
- is high ability necessary for outstanding performance and is ability innate?
49
Creativity
- associated with talent
- involves intellectual skills needed to define new problems, the analytical skills needed to evaluate ideas, the practical intelligence needed to sell the value of new ideas and the divergent thinking skills needed to generate many varied ideas
50
Motivation
- it is the center of outstanding performance
51
Task Commitment
- constellation of psychosocial variables that translates ability and opportunity into outstanding performance
52
Interest
- plays a key role in steering students into certain fields
- women have a lower preference for math focused careers than men, which affects talent management
- interest plays a key role in career choices
53
Opportunity
- includes interest, passion and commitment, as well as a teacher who helps to hole talent appropriately
- person-environment interactions are important in developing the psychological qualities needed for talent development
54
Cultural factors
- influence the expression of talent,
- performances are determined based on cultural factors
55
Personality
- related to high levels of achievement and creative productivity
- after a certain level of ability, personality and motivational factors are more important
56
Emotional Trauma
- can foster creative productivity by developing qualities that help individuals deal with complex problems
- these qualities include psychological independence, tolerance of ambiguity, self-reliance, emotional strength, etc.
57
Parents
- place a great emphasis on intellectual or creative excellence and recognition which they channel into their children's talent development
- parents offer encouragement and intellectual stimulation into their talented children, but this does not necessarily go hand in hand with emotional support
58
Passion
- directed toward a specific area rather than being a general characteristic of the individual
- young people talented in sports and arts are passionate about their activities, while academically talented young people show less passion for school
59
Expected outcomes of gifted education:
1. self actualization: create a safe, joyful community of learning where each child can be their best self, development of the individual, success is based on gifted children maximizing the development of an emotionally different psyche
2. development of eminence: gifted children must achieve outstanding performance in order to be called gifted as adults
60
Educating Gifted Students
- enrichment: opportunities that extend and complement regular curriculum, engage students in a deeper exploration of a topic
-acceleration: idea that gifted students can acquire and process information faster than their peers, allows students to access material earlier than their peers (i.e. early school enrolment, grade skipping, AP courses, higher grade placement in a single subject)
3. psychosocial coaching: goal setting, imagery, relaxation, concentration, inner speech
4. selective institutions: provide psychologists the chance to understand psychosocial dimensions of optimal performance and talent management, special schools focus on narrower academic areas or offer more general talent management
-
61
Tannenbaum model of talent management
- 5 components are needed to transform early potential into exceptional performance in adulthood
1. general ability
2. specific or domain specific ability
3. psychosocial ability
4. external support
5. chance
- suggests that general intelligence is required in difference domains
- if general intelligence is high enough in one area, it must be accompanied by basic abilities or dispositions associated with that area
- interpersonal skills, motivation and perseverance are required to overcome obstacles in the talent pipeline
- at least one person should encourage the individual during the talent management process
- genetics, family circumstance and geographical encironment all play a role in fulfilling potential
62
WICS model
- giftedness: a cultivation of expertise, characterised by excellence compared to peers and rarity in specific contexts
-i.e. academically gifted individuals in graduate studies are not considered gifted unless they have overcome significant challenges
- productivity in valuable areas that benefit the common good
- need to balance interpersonal, intrapersonal, extrapersonal needs, requiring intrinsic motivation and courage
- emphasizes roles of intelligence, creativity, and practical knowledge, enabling gifted individuals to leverage strengths, address weaknesses and access insider knowledge in their fields
63
Co-incidence model
- explains why prodigies emerge in some fields but not others
- focuses on: biological inclination, access to expert mentors, familial support and a strong passion for the field
- chance plays a role in determining which domains are accessible to children and in aligning the factors that lead to prodigious achievements
64
Enrichment triad model
- focuses on nurturing talent in children and adolescents
- above average cognitive ability, creative ability and task commitment are needed to develop giftedness
- those in the top 15-20% across these dimensions can develop giftedness, which is enhanced through structured educational experiences
- stage one: enriched activities
- stage 2: specialized instruction in areas of interest
- stage 3: promotes creative productivity for potential societal contributions in adulthood
65
Pyramid Model
- starts with genetic abilities which are enhanced through training in psychological and cognitive skills
- development is influenced by family, educational, community and cultural values, affecting opportunities to explore talents
- insight, passion, persistence and creativity are more important than intelligence for gaining peer recognition for innovation
66
DGMT
- identifies creative, socio-affective, and sensorimotor skills such as foundational for talent development when exhibited at high levels
- the model emphasizes the roles of learning and practice, alongside environmental and intrapersonal actors such as temperament which can facilitate or hinder this process
- chance also plays a crucial role, affecting access to learning opportunities and presence of motivational traits
67
Talent Search
- focuses on recognizing exceptional mathematical reasoning skills through domain-specific assessments in verbal, mathematical and spatial reasoning
- aligning assessed abilities with educational programs, both in school and extracurricular by accelerating students and adjusting the curriculum pace to match their skills
- this alignment enhances motivation, commitment and perseverance through appropriate challenges
- considers students evolving interests and values
- as abilities develop, optimal programming and career paths may change
68
Bloom's Model
- explores how educators nurture exceptional talent through distinct phases
- Stage 1: playful engagement with a subject, fostering rapid development with support from parents and teachers
- Stage 2: As interests deepen, parents seek qualified instructors for specialized guidance
- Stage 3: if the child remains passionate and committed to their field, a different time of educator helps them carve out a personal niche for their creative pursuits
69
SPIA model
- describes the progression from abilities to competencies and then to expertise with psychosocial skills as key factors
- first stage focuses on a specific talent domain where three constants: musicality (or a mathematical mindset), intrinsic motivation and persistence play a role
- first stage: abilities evolve into competencies, influenced by parental support, eagerness to learn and external rewards
- next stage: develops competencies into expertise, shaped by supportive parenting, educator differentiation, recognition opportunities and social skills development
70
Proposed Talent-Development Mega Model
- abilities matter and can be developed
- talent areas have different developmental trajectories
- opportunities should be provided for young people and they should take advantage of them
- psychosocial variables are key factors in the successful development of talent
- excellence is the desired outcome of talent management
- distinguishes between development of performers and producers
- performers: singers, dancers, actors, athletes
- producers: composers, choreographers, writers, academic
- differences in performance between and within domains vary in terms of starts, peaks and finishes over the life course
- trajectory depends on when skills and abilities in the talent domain are developed and boiled down
- influenced by physical maturation in some domains, and depends on when talent is recognized
- talent development process involves a series of transitions in which: skills develop into competencies, competencies into skills and skills into excellence???
71
Central Methodological Challenges
- definitional issues
- lack of agreements on desired outcomes
- ceiling effects
- issues finding an appropriate comparison group
- using inappropriate significance tests and generalizing from extreme or convenience samples
72
Research Agents for the field
- read the athenasummaries page
73
Study: Cognitive Skills and Social Information Processing in Children with Mild to Borderline Intellectual Disabilities
- young ppl with MBID = underdeveloped social skills which can lead to aggressive behaviour and psychiatric disorders
- MBID: struggle with social inclusion, peer relationships, less accepted, prevalence of psychiatric disorders is higher in this group -> disproportionately represented in child protection, disability services and criminal justice system
- inadequate social information processing plays a key role in the psychosocial problems of kids with MBID
- results: emotion recognition, situational awareness WM and inhibition skills predict SIP (mostly emotion recognition and interpretation)
- conclusion: cognitive skills predict social information processing in kids with MBID, ability to recognize emotions and interpret situations is most important
- thus: clinicians need to investigate both SIP and social cognitive skills to know causes of behavioural problems and inadequate SIP, treatment should focus on emotion recognition and understanding social situations
74
Social Information Processing (SIP)
- involves encoding social info, interpreting behaviour, regulating emotions and generating and executing responses
- disruptions in this process can lead to problematic functioning
75
AAIDD definition
- classified ID based on level of support needed: intermittent, limited, extensive or pervasive
- advocates raising IQ cut off score from 70 to 75
- focus is on providing support to help individuals with daily life
76
DSM-5 definition:
1. IQ = <70
2. concurrent deficits in adaptive functioning across conceptual, social, and practical domains affecting daily life
3. onset before age 18
- focuses on adaptive functioning more than IQ ranges, introducing support level specifiers
- includes a category for global developmental delay in kids under 5, indicating unmet milestones which can be reassessed later
77
IDEA
- provides federal resources for children eligible for special education
- most state regulations use IQ thresholds (70-75)
- Part C allocates funds for supporting infants and toddlers with disabilities: 35% delay in one developmental domain or 25% delay in 2+ domains (cognitive, motor, speech and language, social/emotional or adaptive functioning)
- Part B covers services from children aged 3-21, children aged 3-9 receive special services but these are not mandatory
78
Prevalence and Course of ID
- 1%-3% with a higher prevalence in males
- 85% with ID have mild, minimal support disabilities
- early identification= linked to more severe cases
- mild delays may not be noticeable until formal education starts
- characteristics vary based on severity and traits
- indicators of serious complications: self-injury, aggression, stereotypical movements, communication and hyperactivity
- those with mild ID may function adequately just at a slower pace
- cognitive limitations are less noticeable in structured environments but become more apparent in unfamiliar situations
- 4x more likely for comorbid disorders: ADHD, depression, bipolar, anxiety
79
Etiology of ID: Biological
- can stem from genetic anomalies
- Down Syndrome: chromosome 21 irregularity, shorter stature, almond eyes, round face, reduced muscle tone, stubbornness and speech issues, along with common health issues (esp. heart), risk of having a DS child increases with parental age, IQ varies widely
- Prader-Willi syndrome: chromosome 15, low muscle tone (identified at birth), becomes more evident in school aged children, IQ of 60-80, short stature, small hands and feet, impulsivity and compulsive eating
- Williams syndrome: deletion on chromosome 7, 50% of passing gene to children, most experience delays, IQ ranging from mild to severe disabilities
80
Etiology of ID: Environmental
- prenatal factors -> esp. exposure to teratogens
- FAS: stunted growth, CNS dysfunction, distinct facial features, facial traits may diminish with age but cognitive impairments persist
- premature delivery, oxygen deprivation, heard trauma, infections (encephalitis or meningitis)
- exposure to environmental pollutants like lead
81
ID Behavioural Interventions
- address social, emotional and behavioural issues by breaking down problematic behaviours and reshaping them into acceptable skills through contingency management
- reduce aggression and promote skills like compliance and social interactions
- most effective programs utilize functional analysis based on applied behavioural analysis: straightforward solutions to disruptive behaviours such as using praise to encourage positive actions and ignoring negative ones
- focusing on increasing deficit behaviours through positive reinforcement is more beneficial than targeting excessive behaviours
82
Parent Training Programs
- enhance behavioural outcomes by promoting consistency and transferring effects between home and educational settings
- effective whether delivered in groups or individually
83
Educational Programs
- i.e. IDEA: promotes education in the least restrictive environment, favoring integration into general education
- advocates of full inclusion which showed better outcomes for children with mild ID in regular classrooms while pull-out programs often resulted in isolation
84
