Problem 4 Flashcards
Definition EF (3)
- mental processes that support the regulation of goal directed behaviour
- psychological processes involved in the conscious control of thought and action
- top-down mental processes needed when you have to concentrate and pay attention
What does EF require (4)
- effort
- interfering with execution of other non-automated processes
- get better with practice
- are influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation and education
Importance of EF
- Ef impaired in addiction, ADHD and depression
- poor EF associated with over eating
- higher EF associated with higher quality of life
- EF is an important factor in school readiness
- EF can predict math and reading performance
- poor EF associated with difficulty keeping job
- partner with poor EF more likely to act on impulse
- poor EF associated with social problems (crime)
Cool and Hot EF
- Cool: purely cognitive, nothing at stake, lab tasks
- Hot EF: real life, reward, social evaluation, something at stake, often reported ( interviews, questionnaires, not tested directly), hot tasks are more difficult
EF Components
- inhibition: suppression of responses
- updating: updating and monitoring info, WM
- shifting: switching between mental sets or tasks, cognitive flexibility
Inhibition
- controlling one’s attention, behaviour, thoughts and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what’s more appropriate or needed
- not doing something = active process
- suppression of behavioural response
- interference control: selective attention, cognitive inhibition (stroop task)
Delay of Gratification Paradigm (Mischel)
- measurement intent: self-control, aspect of inhibitory control that involves resisting temptations and not acting impulsively or prematurely
- waiting time is key
Explanation for limited replication of results: delay of gratification
- background factors
- intelligence and cognitive skills
- these can impact the child’s performance in later life
- traditional measures of cognition are better predictors of later academic performance
Associations between pre-school waiting time and performance in later life
- significant correlation with waiting time and SAT scores over a decade later
- in the replication it was significant but lower and these relations weakened when controlling for child background (i.e. income, mother’s education etc.) and child’s cognitive skills at preschool
Working memory
- holding information in mind and mentally working on it
- central executive
- visuospatial sketchpad (visual meaning)
- episodic buffer (episodic long-term memory)
- phonological loop (language
Visuospatial Sketchpad
- limited capacity
- simultaneous processing (as opposed to phonological loop)
Evidence for articulatory rehearsal in phonological loop
- typical WM tasks: reproduce elements in reverse order
- capacity increases with age
-effect of word length (shorter words are easier) - effect of verbalization: concrete objects versus abstract forms (abstract forms are more challenging)
Episodic Buffer
- integration of multimodal information, including information from LTM
- LTM contains more information with development, which is why WM becomes more effective with development
- some researchers argue that the WM is the core EF as the central executive involves inhibition and shifting as well
Shifting
- adapt to changing environment
- switching between rules
- i.e. dimensional change card sorting (DCCS)
Shifting Tasks
- Cool shifting: WCST
- Hot shifting: many daily situations, taking turns in convo, etc.
Milestones in EF
- first months: eye movement control -> selective attention
- +- 12 months: succeeds at A not B task
- 3-5 yrs: spurt development of EF
- further development until 12 years and into young adulthood: inhibition develops earliest, inhibition and shifting develop up to 15 years, WM develops until 21
- In adulthood: decline of EF
What is EF related to in the brain
- PFC
- persons with PFC lesions undergo personality changes and have difficulties with decision making
- youngest and most vulnerable brain are (aging)
- rapid development from birth to 2 years
- next growth spurt between 4 and 7 years
- further growth into young adulthood
- but PFC has connections to many areas in the brain (it is not the only area related to EF)
Undeveloped EF in daily life
- children cannot inhibit response to perceptual salient and appealing features
- shift attention away from affect-based message to their advertising knowledge
- process the message by comparing it to their advertising knowledge in LTM (updating)
How children can protect themselves from persuasive media messages
- Stop and Think: critical systematic processing
Latent Variables
- updating
-inhibition - EF
- metacognition
- love
- strategy
- we cannot directly measure them
How can you study EF components
- Confirmatory Factor analysis
- each component is a latent variable measured by manifest variables
-relations reflect what tasks have in common
Miyake et al. (2000)
- 3 factor structure
- factors correlated but were distinguishable
Huizinga et al. (200^)
- factor model EFS, inhibition not internally consistent
- all the inhibition tasks were linked to different factors
Wiebe et al (2011)
- only found one factor
- no unique EFs
Explanation of Contradictory Results
- methodology issues (reliability, way of scoring, selection of tasks)
- age matters, EF appears to develop from a unitary construct to a more differentiated structure of these components
Conclusion on uniqueness and internal
consistency of EFs
- Still not clear if inhibition, working memory and cognitive
flexibility are unique - Factors are separated, but correlated
- Tasks are not pure measures of individual EFs
Parents help EF grow
- maternal sensitivity
- maternal mind mindedness
- child cognitive ability
- this is correlational tho!
Schools help EF grow
- in class EFs are addressed during cooperation, using scarce material, pretend play, dance, arts, social interaction, puzzles, talking about the mind, self-regulated learning
- teachers help by scaffolding
Difficulties in EF training studies
- those who initially scored lowest on EF often benefit the most : select children who perform worst?
- highest effectiveness on most demanding EF tasks: train the most difficult tasks?
- or is this regression to the mean?
EF and stress
- Stress makes EF worse
Extracurricular
activities and EF
- (Martial arts) sports ask
for selective attention,
WM, discipline) - Mindfulness calls for
concentration - Results on effectiveness
are (still) scarce
Dedicated Learning
- Books for parents, teachers to help children in developing EF
- Computer programmes for children (and adults) to train EF:
e.g., Cogmed, EndeavorRx
– Scientific research mixed but beneficial effects in the task
are demonstrated
– Transfer to other tasks and daily life is however very
limited
More difficulties in EF training studies
Consider: Which children participate in martial arts, are
offered training (computer, mindfulness)? possible
confound with SES
Consider:
– Null-results are not always published
– What is the sample size, is the effect replicated?
– Commercial interest
Environment and EF
Environment needs to
– challenge: practice through academic tasks, sharing,
conversation, arts
– be safe & secure: avoid stress
– scaffold (from modelling to independence)
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How a negative environment can impact EF
… stressed, … sad, … lonely, … sleep-
deprived, … not physically fit … can cause you to appear to
have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not.”
* Explanations:
– All require switching between task and inner state
– Negative feelings must be inhibited
– Negative thoughts charge WM
* “If we want schoolchildren … to have better attention and
concentration … we cannot ignore stresses in their lives
EF Diamond definition
Top-down mental processes that help with concentration and attention when automatic responses are insufficient.
Three Core Executive Functions
- Inhibition (Inhibitory Control): Self-control and selective attention.
- Working Memory (WM): Holding and manipulating information mentally.
- Cognitive Flexibility: Switching perspectives and adapting.
Higher Order EFs
Reasoning, problem-solving, and planning, which build upon core EFs.
Inhibitory Control
- The ability to control attention, behavior, thoughts, and emotions to override instincts or impulses.
1. Attention Control: Focusing on relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions.
2. Cognitive Inhibition: Suppressing unwanted thoughts or memories.
3. Self-Control: Resisting temptations and impulsive reactions.
Types of Attention
- endogenous: voluntary attention based on goals (i.e. ignoring irrelevant ads)
- exogenous attention: involuntary attention driven by external stimuli (i.e. loud noises)
Delayed Gratification
The ability to resist short-term rewards for long-term benefits.
Cognitive Inhibition and WM
- prevents old and new information from interfering with each other
Strategies to improve self-control
- Allowing time to process before responding.
- Reducing exposure to temptation (e.g., keeping unhealthy food out of sight)
Measures of Inhibitory Control
- Stroop task: naming the ink color of a word instead of reading the word
- Go/No-Go Task: pressing a button for most stimuli but inhibiting response for specific stimuli
- Delay-of -Gratification task: resisting an immediate treat for a larger reward later
Commonalities & Differences in Inhibitory Control
Q: How are attention inhibition and action inhibition related?
A: They are strongly correlated and share neural systems.
Q: How does delay of gratification differ from other forms of inhibition?
A: It may be separately processed in the brain.
Q: What do inhibitory tasks reveal about cognition?
A: They provide insight into cognitive development and self-regulation.
WM
- WM is the ability to hold information in mind and mentally manipulate it, even when it is no longer perceptually present.
- dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is crucial for WM tasks
Types of WM
- Verbal WM – Holding and manipulating verbal or auditory information.
- Nonverbal (Visual-Spatial) WM – Holding and manipulating visual or spatial information.
What is the key difference between WM and short-term memory (STM)?
WM: Holding and manipulating information.
STM: Only holding information without manipulation.
Tasks that Measure WM
Hearts and Flowers (Dots) Task – Requires translating rules into actions.
Reordering Tasks – Recalling a sequence and rearranging it by a specific rule (e.g., alphabetical order).
Complex Span Tasks – Holding multiple pieces of information while performing another task.
WM and inhibitory control
- WM helps inhibitory control by holding goals in mind, WM helps individuals resist distractions and avoid impulsive responses.
- Inhibitory control helps WM by prevents irrelevant information from cluttering WM, allowing focus on necessary information
WM and decision making
helps integrate past experiences, conceptual knowledge, and future goals when making choices
How do children improve their WM and inhibitory control?
- Visual aids (e.g., “Ears don’t talk; ears listen” cue in classrooms).
- Practice with structured games that require memory and rule-following.
- Meditation to improve focus and reduce mind-wandering.
What is the fundamental debate regarding the relationship between WM and inhibitory control?
A: Researchers disagree on whether inhibition is a separate function from WM or merely a behavioral outcome of exercising WM.
Some argue that both WM and inhibition rely on the same limited-capacity system (Engle & Kane, 2004; Wais & Gazzaley, 2011).
Others suggest WM is primary and inhibition is derivative (Egner & Hirsch, 2005; Hanania & Smith, 2010; Miller & Cohen, 2001).
What is the argument for WM being the primary function with inhibition as a byproduct?
states that strong goal representation in WM alone is sufficient to guide behavior. In this model, inhibition is not an independent process but a natural consequence of keeping a goal active
What evidence suggests inhibitory control and WM enhancement are separate functions?
Some empirical studies show that enhancement (activating goals in WM) and suppression (ignoring irrelevant stimuli) are dissociable. For example, Zanto et al. (2011) found older adults could enhance relevant stimuli but struggled to suppress distractions.
What are action slipds
- occur when a person unintentionally performs a habitual action instead of a planned one,
- i.e. dialing an old phone number or driving home instead of stopping for an errand
- suggest WM lapses rather than failures of inhibitory control
How do WM and selective attention relate
-WM and selective attention share overlapping neural systems (prefrontal-parietal network).
-Studies show that holding information in WM enhances selective attention to relevant stimuli while suppressing distractions
How does WM develop in infancy and childhood
- infants (9–12 months) can update WM, as seen in A-not-B tasks
- but the ability to hold multiple items and manipulate them (e.g., reordering by size) develops more slowly
Tasks used to measure WM
Backward Digit Span: Repeating numbers in reverse order.
Corsi Block Test: Touching blocks in the same order as seen.
Self-Ordered Pointing Task: Touching different items without repetition.
Complex Span Tasks: Holding items in mind while processing another task.
How does aging affect WM?
- WM declines with age, primarily due to reduced inhibitory control, making older adults more vulnerable to distractions and interference
What is the relationship between WM and speed of processing
WM improvements in development and its decline with aging are correlated with changes in processing speed. However, whether speed influences WM or vice versa remains debated
Cognitive Flexibility
ability to switch perspectives, adapt to new rules, and think outside the box.
At what age does cognitive flexibility emerge, and how does it develop
- Cognitive flexibility begins developing around 3 years old but becomes more refined by 4.5–5 years.
- True flexibility in switching tasks on a trial-by-trial basis does not emerge until 7–9 years
Attentional Inertia
- Attentional inertia is the tendency to persist in focusing on what was previously relevant
- Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), 3-year-olds struggle to shift sorting rules, even when they know the new rule
How does cognitive flexibility relate to creativity and problem-solving
- allows individuals to generate novel solutions by thinking beyond habitual responses. - tested using tasks like the Unusual Uses Task, where people think of alternative uses for objects
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
- measures cognitive flexibility by requiring individuals to deduce sorting rules and adjust when the rules change
- Difficulty with this task indicates struggles with set-shifting
Aging and cognitive flexibility
Older adults show slower reaction times in mixed-task conditions and have difficulty switching between tasks compared to younger adults, indicating a decline in cognitive flexibility.
What is the difference between proactive and reactive cognitive control
Young children and older adults tend to respond reactively to environmental demands, while older children and young adults are more proactive, planning ahead to optimize cognitive flexibility.
Fluid Intelligence
- ability to reason, problem-solve, and see patterns or relations among items
- includes both inductive and deductive logical reasoning
- measured using i.e. Raven’s matrices
Developmental milestones in fluid intelligence
Infancy & Early Childhood: Basic pattern recognition and problem-solving emerge.
Middle Childhood: Improvements in logical reasoning and abstract thinking.
Adolescence: Stronger inductive and deductive reasoning abilities develop.
Adulthood: Peak fluid intelligence occurs in early adulthood, followed by gradual decline with age.
Differences Between Executive Functions (EFs) and Self-Regulation
Self-regulation involves emotional, motivational, and cognitive control, whereas executive functions primarily focus on thoughts, attention, and actions
Brain Regions Involved in EF and Self-Regulation
Lateral Prefrontal Cortex: Associated with EF tasks such as problem-solving and reasoning.
Medial Prefrontal Cortex & Orbitofrontal Cortex: More involved in self-regulation and emotional control.
Executive Attention vs. Executive Function
Executive attention is the top-down regulation of attention, while executive function includes broader cognitive control mechanisms, such as working memory and inhibition
Factors That Negatively Impact EF
Stress (impairs cognitive flexibility and working memory)
Sadness & Loneliness (reduces problem-solving abilities)
Sleep Deprivation (worsens inhibition and attention control)
Poor Physical Health (leads to cognitive decline and EF deficits)
EF Training Methods for Children
CogMed© Training: Enhances working memory.
Martial Arts & Mindfulness: Improve self-control and discipline.
School Programs (e.g., PATHS, CSRP): Promote better cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation.
Who Benefits Most from EF Training
Children with lower baseline EF skills benefit the most.
Disadvantaged children show significant improvements with early EF interventions.
Transfer Effects of EF Training
Narrow Transfer: EF gains limited to similar tasks (e.g., training on spatial working memory only improves spatial memory).
Broad Transfer: Martial arts and school-based programs improve multiple EF domains.
EF Development Across the Lifespan
Infants: Bilingual exposure may accelerate EF development.
Children: Cognitive training and school-based programs show promising results.
Young Adults: Computerized EF training can enhance working memory.
Older Adults: Physical fitness and cognitive training can slow EF decline.
Key Principles of EF Development
Early training reduces social disparities.
Incremental difficulty is necessary for improvement.
Regular practice is crucial.
The greatest gains appear in the most demanding tasks.
Metacognition
-metacognition is the ability to think about one’s own mind, knowledge, and cognitive processes, including evaluating the quality, depth, and relevance of knowledge
- skills emerge gradually during the elementary school years
What are two key aspects of metacognition?
- Evaluating one’s own knowledge.
- Considering what others know.
What is the “illusion of knowing” in young children?
Young children tend to overestimate their understanding and abilities, often believing they have learned more than they actually have.
What is the “illusion of explanatory depth”?
The tendency for people to believe they understand a concept in detail, only to realize their knowledge is limited when asked to explain it.
How do young children evaluate others’ knowledge?
Even 3- and 4-year-olds assess reliability by noticing past mistakes, consensus with others, and intentions of the speaker.
What is “division of cognitive labor”?
The understanding that different experts specialize in different types of knowledge (e.g., doctors for biology, mechanics for machines).
How does children’s understanding of knowledge evolve over time?
Absolutism: Belief in one true answer.
Relativism: Belief that all explanations are equally valid.
Evaluativism: Recognition that some explanations are better justified than others.
How do children recognize the limits of their own knowledge?
Older children (second grade and beyond) begin to see the mismatch between what they think they know and what they actually understand.
