Problem 1 Flashcards
Why is development considered a “systems problem”?
Development involves sequential biological changes that build on each other to support survival at every stage.
How does development progress in complex organisms?
Development starts from a single fertilized egg, forming anatomical systems and behaviors, influenced continuously by the environment.
Why does development follow an ordered sequence?
Complex systems rely on simpler, earlier-developing systems, ensuring viability at every stage.
What are the two main influences on development?
Inputs (genes and environment) and constraints (viability, specialization, and timing).
How does neural development support psychological growth?
Brain cells grow, interconnect, and form structures that enable perception, thought, and emotion.
What is the focus of behavioral genetics?
It examines how genetic variations influence brain structure, function, and behavior.
What is a critical period?
- A time when specific experiences are essential for normal biological and psychological development.
- i.e. early visual experience
What is the structure of DNA?
DNA is a double-stranded helix composed of base pairs (A-T, C-G).
What is a genome?
The complete set of genes within an organism.
What are alleles?
Different versions of a gene that contribute to trait variation.
What is the difference between dominant and recessive alleles?
Dominant alleles express traits when present, while recessive alleles require two copies to be expressed.
How do sex chromosomes determine biological sex in humans?
Females have XX chromosomes, while males have XY chromosomes. The father’s contribution determines the child’s sex.
How does the prenatal environment influence development?
Factors like maternal hormones, nutrition, and external substances affect fetal growth.
What postnatal factors shape development?
Sensory experiences, nutrition, and social interactions influence brain and behavioral development.
Q: How do genes and environment interact in development?
Genes provide the blueprint, but environmental factors shape how genetic traits are expressed.
How do regulatory genes function?
They act as switches, controlling when and how other genes are expressed.
Why is the idea of a single “gene for” traits like intelligence misleading?
Most traits result from complex interactions between multiple genes and environmental factors.
What is the total number of chromosomes in humans?
46 chromosomes (23 pairs), inherited equally from both parents.
: What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?
Homozygous: Both alleles for a gene are the same (AA or OO).
Heterozygous: The alleles for a gene are different (AO or AB).
What is a dominant allele?
An allele that is expressed when paired with a recessive allele (e.g., A in AO blood type).
What is a recessive allele?
An allele that is only expressed when both inherited alleles are recessive (e.g., O in OO blood type).
What does codominance mean?
Both alleles are equally expressed, as in the AB blood type.
How can a relatively small number of genes create many distinct proteins?
Through gene interactions, regulatory mechanisms, and protein synthesis pathways.
What are regulatory cascades?
Complex sequences where turning on one gene activates several others, influenced by environmental factors.
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
Genotype: The genetic code (DNA) an organism inherits.
Phenotype: The physical and behavioral expression of that genetic code, influenced by the environment.
How can the environment influence gene expression?
Environmental factors like nutrition, climate, and chemical exposure can activate or suppress certain genes.
What are the three key constraints on development?
Viability: The organism must stay alive and sustain basic functions.
Cell differentiation: Cells must specialize into different types.
Timing and sequencing: Development must occur in a precise order.
Why is viability important in development?
The organism must metabolize nutrients, eliminate waste, and develop life-sustaining functions like circulation and respiration.
What is cell differentiation?
The process where identical cells specialize into different cell types with specific functions.
What is epigenetic regulation?
A process where environmental factors turn genes on or off without changing DNA sequences.
What is methylation, and how does it affect gene expression?
Methyl groups attach to DNA, often turning genes off and influencing development and disease risk.
What is an example of an environmental factor affecting genetic expression?
A child with a genetic predisposition to obesity may only become obese if exposed to an environment with high-calorie foods.
How does gene regulation affect fetal development?
Genes turn on and off at specific times to ensure proper organ and structural development.
How can prenatal diet affect gene activity?
A mother’s diet can alter fetal gene expression, affecting the child’s risk for diseases like diabetes.
What was the conclusion of the low-protein diet study in mice?
Paternal low-protein diets caused epigenetic changes that increased cholesterol synthesis in offspring.
What is synaptic pruning?
- Synaptic pruning is the process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated to increase the efficiency of neural networks.
- Neural activity and environmental experiences play a crucial role in determining which synapses are strengthened and which are eliminated
What was the key finding of Wiesel & Hubel’s (1963) study on vision in newborn cats?
Depriving kittens of visual input from one eye during the first two weeks after birth led to neurons that normally process binocular vision dying off, impairing depth perception.
How does the environment influence brain development?
Environmental stimulation affects neuronal growth, dendritic branching, and synaptic connectivity, whereas deprivation can lead to reduced complexity and even neuron death
What is compensation plasticity?
It is the brain’s ability to reassign functions from a deprived sensory area to another function, such as enhanced visual processing in individuals born deaf
What is the difference between gray matter and white matter in the brain?
Gray matter consists of cell bodies and dendrites, where processing occurs, while white matter is composed of myelinated axons that facilitate communication between brain regions.
How does experience shape brain structure?
Learning and practice, such as juggling or playing an instrument, can increase gray matter and myelination in the relevant brain regions
What changes occur in the adolescent brain during puberty?
Synaptic pruning in the frontal lobes removes inefficient connections, while increased white matter improves neural communication, contributing to cognitive maturity
Why are adolescents prone to risk-taking behavior?
The limbic system, which processes emotions and rewards, matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex, which controls impulse regulation, leading to increased risk-taking
How does synaptic pruning relate to childhood deprivation?
Severe deprivation, such as in orphanages, may cause excessive pruning, leading to reduced brain size, disorganized neural connections, and long-term cognitive deficits
Heritability
- The extent to which variations in a trait within a particular population are due to genetic differences rather than environmental factors.
- Measured on a scale from 0 to 1.
- 1 = Trait entirely due to genetics.
- 0 = Trait entirely due to environment.
- No trait has perfect heritability due to genetic-environment interactions.
Example of Heritability in Traits
High Heritability: Height (strong genetic influence but affected by nutrition).
Low Heritability: Language spoken (entirely determined by environment).
Heritability in Populations vs. Individuals
- Heritability describes populations, NOT individuals!
- A heritability of 0.9 for height means 90% of height variation in a population is genetic.
- It does NOT mean 90% of an individual’s height is from genes—environment still plays a role.
Environmental Influence on Heritability
Example: Diabetes
Some forms have high heritability.
However, in populations with low sugar diets, fewer people develop diabetes → heritability appears lower.
🔹 Example: Height Differences in Two Populations
New York vs. Sudan (famine-stricken area)
Both populations might have a heritability of 0.9 for height.
But Sudanese children could be shorter due to malnutrition, NOT genetics.
When do infants begin forming specific bonds?
Around 6 to 7 months old.
What behaviors indicate bonding in infants?
Preference for caregivers, smiling, and separation distress at 8 months.
What is separation distress?
The anxiety infants experience when a caregiver leaves, showing attachment to a specific person.
How does Freud explain infant attachment?
- Infants form bonds due to oral gratification, associating pleasure (breastfeeding) with the mother.
- BUT It overemphasizes breastfeeding and does not account for bottle-fed infants or the role of fathers.
What does Learning Theory say about attachment?
- Bonds form due to reinforcement: caregivers provide food and comfort, which conditions attachment.
- BUT It ignores cognitive processes and doesn’t explain why abused children remain attached to abusive caregivers.
What is Bowlby’s Ethological Approach to Attachment?
Attachment is an evolved behavior ensuring survival by keeping infants close to caregivers.
What are the four attachment styles identified by Ainsworth?
- Secure – Comfortable with closeness, easily soothed.
🔸 2. Avoidant – Emotionally distant, avoids closeness.
🔸 3. Ambivalent/Resistant – Clingy, anxious, difficult to soothe.
🔸 4. Disorganized – Inconsistent behavior, may fear caregivers.
What role does culture play in attachment?
Different cultures may emphasize independence (leading to avoidant attachment) or closeness (leading to secure attachment).
What happens when infants experience extreme social deprivation?
They may struggle with forming attachments and show long-term emotional and cognitive difficulties.
. Phases of Attachment (Bowlby)
Preattachment (0-6 weeks): Infants display attachment behaviors but do not focus on a specific caregiver.
Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks–6-8 months): Infants begin preferring familiar caregivers.
Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months–18 months-2 years): Infants actively seek their caregiver and experience separation anxiety.
Reciprocal relationships (18 months+): Children begin to understand their caregiver’s needs and adjust their behavior.
How did Bowlby distinguish attachment from attachment behaviors?
Attachment behaviors (crying, clinging, following) help maintain attachment but do not define its strength. A securely attached child may not always display attachment behaviors.
What is a “secure base”?
A caregiver provides a safe, reliable foundation for a child to explore the world while knowing they can return for comfort.
Why is attachment important for survival?
It keeps infants close to caregivers, protecting them from danger and increasing their chances of survival.
What is the difference between attachment and dependency?
Dependency is relying on someone for basic needs, while attachment is an emotional bond that provides security.
How does an infant’s smile develop in relation to attachment?
At first, infants smile due to internal states.
Later, they smile at sensory stimulation.
Around 6 months, they smile in recognition of their caregiver.
What is contingent responding in parent-child interaction?
A cycle where a baby smiles, the parent responds positively, reinforcing the baby’s behavior.
What is the general progression of stimuli that elicit infant smiles according to Wolff’s classic account?v
Internal states (e.g., feeling full, comfortable)
Tactile stimulation (e.g., being touched or held)
External visual stimuli
External auditory stimuli
Social stimulation (e.g., human faces)
Recognition of unique individuals (e.g., caregivers)
What happens when an infant’s social expectations are violated (e.g., during the “still-face” experiment)?
Infants become distressed when caregivers do not respond as expected, showing that they anticipate reciprocal social interactions from a very early age.
What role does touch play in attachment?
Reduces stress in infants.
Strengthens caregiver-infant bond through increased oxytocin levels.
Helps infants associate caregivers with comfort and security.
How does cuteness contribute to attachment?
Infant features (large eyes, round face, small nose) activate caregiving instincts in adults.
Enhances reward system activation in adult brains.
Encourages nurturing behavior across species.
What is social referencing in infants?
It is when infants look to caregivers’ expressions to interpret ambiguous or unfamiliar situations, guiding their emotional responses.
How do cultural differences influence infant-caregiver interactions?
Some cultures emphasize visual interaction (e.g., gazing, smiling), while others emphasize physical touch (e.g., stroking, patting).
These patterns become evident within the first few months of life.
How did a study compare German mothers and Kumbo mothers in their interactions with infants?
German mothers used 2.5 times more visual interaction than Kumbo mothers.
Kumbo mothers used 50% more touch-oriented interactions than German mothers.
What does this cultural variation in interaction suggest about attachment formation?
It suggests that attachment behaviors are flexible and adapt to cultural norms, showing different ways to build secure relationships.
Three types of effects of Genotype ->
Environment
Passive: parents provide both genes and environment
– Decreases with age
2. Evocative: child characteristics elicit reactions from others
– Constant with age
3. Active: a child seeks an environment appropriate to its
genotype
– Increases with age
How does birth order potentially impact child development?
Research suggests that birth order may influence personality and development, but its effects can vary by family context. Firstborns may be more responsible, while later-born children might be more rebellious or social.
However, these effects are not universal and depend on family dynamics.
sibling differentiation
- siblings often develop different interests, skills, and personality traits to carve out their own identity within the family
- helps reduce direct competition between them
How have family demographics changed in recent decades
Older parents having children later in life
Smaller families with fewer children
More dual-income families, where both parents work full-time
More diverse family structures, including single-parent families, same-sex parents, and blended families
hat are some potential effects of family structure on child development?
Divorce: Can cause emotional stress, but effects vary based on child’s age and parental conflict level.
Single-parent households: May face financial stress but can still provide strong emotional support.
Same-sex parents: Research shows no significant negative effects compared to heterosexual parents.
Blended families: Can introduce adjustment challenges but also provide additional support.
What is the “cycle of abuse,” and how does it affect future generations?
- The cycle of abuse refers to the tendency for abused children to become abusive parents.
- This pattern can continue across generations if there is no intervention, emphasizing the need for early support and prevention.
What are the four major parenting styles identified by Baumrind?
Authoritative (High Warmth, High Control) – Balanced, nurturing, and structured parenting.
Authoritarian (Low Warmth, High Control) – Strict, rule-based, and often harsh.
Permissive (High Warmth, Low Control) – Lenient, indulgent, and lacks discipline.
Neglectful/Uninvolved (Low Warmth, Low Control) – Detached, uninvolved, and unresponsive.
How do different parenting styles affect children’s development?
Authoritative: Leads to independent, self-confident, and socially responsible children.
Authoritarian: Can result in withdrawn, anxious, or overly obedient children.
Permissive: Often produces impulsive, less responsible children with high self-esteem.
Neglectful: Associated with poor emotional regulation, low self-esteem, and risk-taking behavior.
Effective parenting includes:
Warmth and responsiveness (emotional support)
Discipline and guidance (setting limits with explanations)
Encouraging autonomy (allowing independence)
Providing structure and consistency (routines, rules)
Neglect or inconsistency can negatively impact self-control, emotional security, and social skills.
How do cultural differences affect the impact of parenting styles?
In European-American cultures, authoritarian parenting is associated with negative outcomes.
In Chinese-American families, similar parenting styles are linked to positive outcomes because they align with cultural values of training and discipline.
Children in East Asian cultures may view strict parenting as caring guidance, whereas Western children may see it as harsh control.
How does socioeconomic status (SES) influence parenting styles?
Higher-SES parents are more likely to be authoritative, engaging in positive communication and providing feedback.
Lower-SES parents are more likely to be authoritarian, using strict discipline due to environmental risks and stress.
Economic hardship can lead to reduced parental warmth and responsiveness.
How does stress impact parenting styles?
Parents in stressful situations (e.g., poverty, dangerous environments) often become more authoritarian as a protective measure.
Temporary stress (e.g., a dangerous situation) can cause even normally warm parents to become strict and controlling.
Stressful work environments (e.g., air traffic controllers) can lead to less involved and more negative parenting on high-stress days.
How do parenting interventions help improve parenting skills?
Parenting programs (e.g., Head Start, Early Head Start) teach parenting skills to lower-income families.
Training reduces coercive parenting and increases positive interactions.
Studies show these programs can improve school readiness and social behaviors in children.
Ecological Systems Appraoch
Microsystem: The immediate environments the child interacts with, like family, peers, school, and neighborhood.
Mesosystem: The interactions between different elements of the microsystem, such as the relationship between a child’s family and school.
Exosystem: The larger social systems that affect the child indirectly, like a parent’s workplace.
Macrosystem: The broader cultural and societal influences, such as cultural values, social norms, and economic conditions.
Chronosystem: The dimension of time, which considers how environmental changes and transitions (e.g., moving to a new city or changes in the family structure) affect the child.
What is the interactionist approach to family dynamics?
The interactionist approach suggests that genetic, child, and parenting effects all interact in complex ways, influencing each other. Parenting may benefit or harm certain children depending on their temperaments, and these effects can change over time as children develop.
What is a challenge of using the interactionist model in research?
A major challenge is that the model is very complex and involves intricate webs of interactions, making it difficult to predict specific outcomes and test predictions. It’s also challenging to separate causal relationships from simple correlations.
How do gender schemas affect parenting behavior?
Gender schemas are cognitive systems shaped by cultural norms that influence how parents interact with their children. For example, parents might provide more complex scientific explanations to boys than to girls, reflecting gender stereotypes in their behavior.
How do parents influence children’s education based on gender?
Parents tend to encourage sons and daughters to take different courses of study, often guiding sons toward more math and science courses and daughters toward other subjects. This reflects gendered expectations in academic interests.
