Principles of Evidence-based Practice, and Ethics

Question 1

What is design bias?

Answer 1

The failure to account for inherent biases

Question 2

What is selection/sampling bias?

Answer 2

Non-representative sample

Question 3

What is measurement bias?

Answer 3

An inaccurate or poorly designed measure

Question 4

What is response bias?

Answer 4

Where participants consciously or subconsciously respond according to what the experiment ‘wants’ or ‘expects to find’

Question 5

What is performance bias?

Answer 5

Where participants or researchers act differently because of allocation in control/experimental group

Question 6

What is statistical significance?

Answer 6

Statistical Significance indicates the reliability of the study results

Question 7

What is clinical significance?

Answer 7

Clinical significance reflects its impact on clinical practice, and should indicate the following: Extent of change, Whether change makes a real difference, Duration of treatment effects, Consumer acceptability, Cost-effectiveness, Ease of implementation

Question 8

What are small, moderate, and large effect size standards?

Answer 8

An effect size of 0.2 indicates a SMALL statistical and clinical difference between two groups, An effect size of 0.5 indicates a MODERATE statistical and clinical difference between two groups, An effect size of 0.8 indicates a LARGE statistical and clinical difference between two groups

Question 9

How is effect size calcualted?

Answer 9

Effect size standards provide an indication of the size of treatment effects. Effect sizes are calculated by taking the mean difference between two treatments and dividing by their pooled variance

Question 10

What is a CONSORT protocol?

Answer 10

A CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) statement is a protocol (developed and published first in 1996) to improve the quality of reporting Randomised Controlled Trials. The CONSORT protocol comprises a checklist and a flow diagram that authors can use for reporting a Randomised Controlled Trial

Question 11

What is a PRISMA protocol?

Answer 11

A PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) is a checklist for authors to use to uphold research practices

Question 12

What is the value of a qual study?

Answer 12

Qualitative research can provide insights into a problem via rich data from individuals’ experiences. Qualitative research can supplement quantitative studies and help gain a comprehensive understanding of underlying reasoning, opinions, and motivations for behaviours/treatments/effects (E.g. can help understand patients’ experiences with a medication and their experience of any negative side effects)

Question 13

What does treatment efficacy focus on?

Answer 13

Efficacy studies emphasise the internal validity of experimental design. They use manuals to standardise treatment delivery, train and monitor therapists (who work in experimental studies on clinical interventions), control number of treatment sessions, and use random assignment to conditions, as well as blinding procedures

Question 14

What does treatment effectiveness focus on?

Answer 14

Effectiveness studies emphasise the external validity of an intervention (assess if treatment is beneficial in a clinical setting). E.g. therapy is not manualised, number of sessions vary among client participants

Question 15

What is utilitarianism/consequentialism?

Answer 15

Ideology where the consequences of actions determine which actions are right or wrong - the idea of the greatest good for the greatest number of people

Question 16

What is deontology?

Answer 16

An ideology focused on the action rather than the consequence - the ends do not justify the means. Aligned with the idea of acting in line with duties and obligations

Question 17

What are the 3 principles of ethics in research?

Answer 17

1. Respect for all persons (autonomy of participants, and protection of those with diminished autonomy), 2. Beneficence - the moral obligation to act for the benefit of others, 3. Justice

Question 18

What are the 3 principles stated in the Australian Psychological Society Code of Ethics?

Answer 18

Respect for the rights and dignity of people(s), Propriety (conforming to set standards), Integrity

Question 19

What is the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research?

Answer 19

Purpose: promote ethical human research. Aims to clarify the responsibilities of ethics committees/review bodies in their review of research. Human research relates to physiological as well as psychological measures

Question 20

What is an HREC and what is its purpose?

Answer 20

A Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) is a group responsible for reviewing the research of an institution and assessing if it meets ethical guidelines. Research cannot proceed unless it meets the requirements of the National Statement. If research is deemed ‘high risk,’ a full review occurs

Question 21

What are the minimum membership rules for an HREC?

Answer 21

A Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) must have at least 8 members. If possible, equal numbers of men and women, and 1/3 members from outside the institution (e.g. from QUT). The minimum membership is 1. A chairperson, 2. At least two laypeople (one man and one woman) with no affiliation with the institution and no involvement in medical, scientific, legal, or academic work, 3. At least one person with knowledge/current experience in counselling, professional care, and/or treatment of people (e.g. nurse), 4. At least one person who performs in a pastoral care role in the community (e.g. Aboriginal elder, religious minister), 5. At least one lawyer (ideally not engaged to advise the institution), 6. At least two people with current research experience relevant to the proposals being considered

Question 22

What is the difference between harm, discomfort, and inconvenience?

Answer 22

Harm is an ethical problem for research and can constitute physical harm (injury, illness, pain), psychological harm (including feelings of worthlessness, distress, guilt, anger, or fear), the devaluation of personal worth (e.g. being humiliated, manipulated, or treated disrespectfully/unjustly), or social harm (damage to social networks/relationships with others). Discomfort is less serious than harm and can involve the body or mind (acc. APS Code) (E.g. minor side effects of medication, discomfort when having blood pressure measured, anxiety induced by interview). Inconvenience is less serious than discomfort (E.g. filling in a form, participating in a street survey). When a person’s reactions exceed discomfort and become distress, this is then viewed as harm

Question 23

Is ethical review required for a survey study on gardening activities and self-reported wellbeing benefits?

Answer 23

Yes

Question 24

Is ethical review required for a study observing how an interventionalist delivers a treatment?

Answer 24

Yes

Question 25

Is ethical review required for an observation of people’s physical distancing in a supermarket?

Answer 25

Yes

Question 26

Is ethical review required for proxy reporting about a person with dementia’s wellbeing after an intervention?

Answer 26

Yes

Question 27

Is ethical review required when interviewing a person with dementia?

Answer 27

Yes (full review in this case)

Question 28

Is ethical review required when conducting a meta-analysis about the therapeutic benefits of tending to house plants?

Answer 28

No (information is existing already)

Question 29

What are virtue ethics?

Answer 29

The consistency between a person’s internal virtues and their actual actions

Question 30

What does informed consent need to constitute?

Answer 30

a voluntary choice, sufficient information being given, an adequate understanding of the research and the implications of participating in it, written/verbal/other means of giving consent, consent and assent (continuous, ongoing agreement), opportunity to withdraw

Question 31

When obtaining informed consent, what must participants be informed of?

Answer 31

Research purpose, expected duration, and procedures, Their right to decline to participate and to withdraw once participation has begun, The foreseeable consequences of declining / withdrawing, Reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate (e.g. potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects), Any prospective research benefits, Limits of confidentiality, Incentives for participation, Who to contact for questions

Question 32

Is limited disclosure acceptable?

Answer 32

Limited disclosure may be justifiable to avoid demand characteristics etc. in research. Individuals who find deceptive research objectionable can withdraw their participation (e.g. if they are informed of the deceptive nature of the study post-participation). Deception is allowed ethically if it can be justified cost-benefit-wise (i.e. utilitarian approach), with appropriate debriefing

Question 33

When is deception ethically allowed?

Answer 33

Deceptive procedures are allowed if: 1. Nondeceptive alternatives are not feasible 2. There is no reason to assume participants would not consent if they had been aware of what the study involved 3. There is no increase in risk of harm due to the deception 4. Participants will be debriefed 5. Participants retain the right to discontinue at any time 6. Debriefing fully informs participants and asks for their permission to retain data

Question 34

What are the rules surrounding plagiarism in psychology?

Answer 34

APS: Members must not present substantial portions or elements of another’s work or data as their own.
APA: Psychologists do not present portions of another’s work or data as their own, even if the other source is cited occasionally.

Question 35

What are the rules about falsifying, distorting, or misrepresenting data?

Answer 35

Research data must be retained for a minimum of 5 years.
APS: Members must not fabricate data or falsify results in their publications
APA: Psychologists do not fabricate data

Question 36

What are the rules about authorship order?

Answer 36

Order of authorship for any publication should reflect the relative contribution of the researchers/authors.
APA: “Psychologists take […] authorship credit only for work they have actually performed or to which they substantially contributed.”
A student is usually listed as the principal author on any multiple-authored article that is substantially based on the student’s dissertation/thesis. The student’s supervisor will typically be the second author.

Question 37

What are predatory journals?

Answer 37

Predatory journals/publishers are entities that deviate from best editorial/publication practices, use indiscriminate solicitation practices, and often use false or misleading information and a lack of transparency to promote their own interests. They publish for a fee without providing peer-review or editing services, often resulting in very quick turnaround times on publishing a manuscript.