Principles of Evidence-based Practice, and Ethics Flashcards
What is design bias?
The failure to account for inherent biases
What is selection/sampling bias?
Non-representative sample
What is measurement bias?
An inaccurate or poorly designed measure
What is response bias?
Where participants consciously or subconsciously respond according to what the experiment ‘wants’ or ‘expects to find’
What is performance bias?
Where participants or researchers act differently because of allocation in control/experimental group
What is statistical significance?
Statistical Significance indicates the reliability of the study results
What is clinical significance?
Clinical significance reflects its impact on clinical practice, and should indicate the following: Extent of change, Whether change makes a real difference, Duration of treatment effects, Consumer acceptability, Cost-effectiveness, Ease of implementation
What are small, moderate, and large effect size standards?
An effect size of 0.2 indicates a SMALL statistical and clinical difference between two groups, An effect size of 0.5 indicates a MODERATE statistical and clinical difference between two groups, An effect size of 0.8 indicates a LARGE statistical and clinical difference between two groups
How is effect size calcualted?
Effect size standards provide an indication of the size of treatment effects. Effect sizes are calculated by taking the mean difference between two treatments and dividing by their pooled variance
What is a CONSORT protocol?
A CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) statement is a protocol (developed and published first in 1996) to improve the quality of reporting Randomised Controlled Trials. The CONSORT protocol comprises a checklist and a flow diagram that authors can use for reporting a Randomised Controlled Trial
What is a PRISMA protocol?
A PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) is a checklist for authors to use to uphold research practices
What is the value of a qual study?
Qualitative research can provide insights into a problem via rich data from individuals’ experiences. Qualitative research can supplement quantitative studies and help gain a comprehensive understanding of underlying reasoning, opinions, and motivations for behaviours/treatments/effects (E.g. can help understand patients’ experiences with a medication and their experience of any negative side effects)
What does treatment efficacy focus on?
Efficacy studies emphasise the internal validity of experimental design. They use manuals to standardise treatment delivery, train and monitor therapists (who work in experimental studies on clinical interventions), control number of treatment sessions, and use random assignment to conditions, as well as blinding procedures
What does treatment effectiveness focus on?
Effectiveness studies emphasise the external validity of an intervention (assess if treatment is beneficial in a clinical setting). E.g. therapy is not manualised, number of sessions vary among client participants
What is utilitarianism/consequentialism?
Ideology where the consequences of actions determine which actions are right or wrong - the idea of the greatest good for the greatest number of people
What is deontology?
An ideology focused on the action rather than the consequence - the ends do not justify the means. Aligned with the idea of acting in line with duties and obligations
What are the 3 principles of ethics in research?
- Respect for all persons (autonomy of participants, and protection of those with diminished autonomy), 2. Beneficence - the moral obligation to act for the benefit of others, 3. Justice
What are the 3 principles stated in the Australian Psychological Society Code of Ethics?
Respect for the rights and dignity of people(s), Propriety (conforming to set standards), Integrity
What is the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research?
Purpose: promote ethical human research. Aims to clarify the responsibilities of ethics committees/review bodies in their review of research. Human research relates to physiological as well as psychological measures
What is an HREC and what is its purpose?
A Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) is a group responsible for reviewing the research of an institution and assessing if it meets ethical guidelines. Research cannot proceed unless it meets the requirements of the National Statement. If research is deemed ‘high risk,’ a full review occurs
What is the difference between harm, discomfort, and inconvenience?
Harm is an ethical problem for research and can constitute physical harm (injury, illness, pain), psychological harm (including feelings of worthlessness, distress, guilt, anger, or fear), the devaluation of personal worth (e.g. being humiliated, manipulated, or treated disrespectfully/unjustly), or social harm (damage to social networks/relationships with others). Discomfort is less serious than harm and can involve the body or mind (acc. APS Code) (E.g. minor side effects of medication, discomfort when having blood pressure measured, anxiety induced by interview). Inconvenience is less serious than discomfort (E.g. filling in a form, participating in a street survey). When a person’s reactions exceed discomfort and become distress, this is then viewed as harm
Is ethical review required for a survey study on gardening activities and self-reported wellbeing benefits?
Yes
Is ethical review required for a study observing how an interventionalist delivers a treatment?
Yes
Is ethical review required for an observation of people’s physical distancing in a supermarket?
Yes
Is ethical review required for proxy reporting about a person with dementia’s wellbeing after an intervention?
Yes
Is ethical review required when interviewing a person with dementia?
Yes (full review in this case)
Is ethical review required when conducting a meta-analysis about the therapeutic benefits of tending to house plants?
No (information is existing already)
What are virtue ethics?
The consistency between a person’s internal virtues and their actual actions
What does informed consent need to constitute?
a voluntary choice, sufficient information being given, an adequate understanding of the research and the implications of participating in it, written/verbal/other means of giving consent, consent and assent (continuous, ongoing agreement), opportunity to withdraw
When obtaining informed consent, what must participants be informed of?
Research purpose, expected duration, and procedures, Their right to decline to participate and to withdraw once participation has begun, The foreseeable consequences of declining / withdrawing, Reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate (e.g. potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects), Any prospective research benefits, Limits of confidentiality, Incentives for participation, Who to contact for questions
Is limited disclosure acceptable?
Limited disclosure may be justifiable to avoid demand characteristics etc. in research. Individuals who find deceptive research objectionable can withdraw their participation (e.g. if they are informed of the deceptive nature of the study post-participation). Deception is allowed ethically if it can be justified cost-benefit-wise (i.e. utilitarian approach), with appropriate debriefing
When is deception ethically allowed?
Deceptive procedures are allowed if: 1. Nondeceptive alternatives are not feasible 2. There is no reason to assume participants would not consent if they had been aware of what the study involved 3. There is no increase in risk of harm due to the deception 4. Participants will be debriefed 5. Participants retain the right to discontinue at any time 6. Debriefing fully informs participants and asks for their permission to retain data
What are the rules surrounding plagiarism in psychology?
APS: Members must not present substantial portions or elements of another’s work or data as their own.
APA: Psychologists do not present portions of another’s work or data as their own, even if the other source is cited occasionally.
What are the rules about falsifying, distorting, or misrepresenting data?
Research data must be retained for a minimum of 5 years.
APS: Members must not fabricate data or falsify results in their publications
APA: Psychologists do not fabricate data
What are the rules about authorship order?
Order of authorship for any publication should reflect the relative contribution of the researchers/authors.
APA: “Psychologists take […] authorship credit only for work they have actually performed or to which they substantially contributed.”
A student is usually listed as the principal author on any multiple-authored article that is substantially based on the student’s dissertation/thesis. The student’s supervisor will typically be the second author.
What are predatory journals?
Predatory journals/publishers are entities that deviate from best editorial/publication practices, use indiscriminate solicitation practices, and often use false or misleading information and a lack of transparency to promote their own interests. They publish for a fee without providing peer-review or editing services, often resulting in very quick turnaround times on publishing a manuscript.
