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Bryx_EST > Principles of Communications > Flashcards

Principles of Communications Flashcards

1
Q

Theories of Human Communication

A

Shannon-Weaver Theory and Roman Jacobson Theory

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2
Q

The process that takes place in transmitter

A

Encoding, Compression and error-correcting operations, modulation process

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3
Q

ELF

A

3-30 Hz

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4
Q

SLF

A

30-300 Hz

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5
Q

ULF

A

300-3000Hz

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6
Q

VLF

A

3-30 kHz

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7
Q

LF

A

30-300 kHz

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8
Q

MF

A

300-3000 kHz

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9
Q

HF

A

3-30 MHz

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10
Q

VHF

A

30-300 MHz

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11
Q

UHF

A

300-3000 MHz

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12
Q

SHF

A

3-30 GHz

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13
Q

EHF

A

30-300 GHz

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14
Q

Wavelength Formula

A

Lambda=Vp/f
Vp=velocity of propagation
F=frequency

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15
Q

Bandwidth Formula

A 
f2-f1=fr/Q
f2=upper cut-off frequency, Hz
f1=lower cut-off frequency, Hz
fr=resonant frequency, Hz
Q=quality factor
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16
Q

What is the unit of information?

A

Binary digit (bit)

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17
Q

Formula of amount of information

A

I=log2(n)

Where n=number of coding levels

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18
Q

Who founded the information theory?

A

Claude E. Shannon, 1948

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19
Q

Hartley’s Law

A

C=2BWlog2(n)

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20
Q

Shannon-Hartley theorem

A

C=BWlog2(1+S/N)

Note: S/N in abosolute value, not in Db

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21
Q

Total Information Sent

A

H=Ct
H=bits
C=channel capacity
T=time in seconds

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22
Q

Signal (or noise) Power

A

P=I^2R

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23
Q

Power Required to send Information

A

Pn/P2=(n-1)^2

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24
Q

It is introduced in the transmitting medium or channel

A

External Noise

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25
Q

Noise that normally occurs at 600 MHz

A

Industrial or Man-made Noise

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26
Q

Sources of Industrial or Man-made noise

A

Fluorescent lights, ignition systems of engines, switching equipment, commutator of electric motors, leakage from high voltage transmission lines

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27
Q

Usually caused by lightning discharges

A

Atmospheric Noise

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28
Q

Atmospheric Noise level formula

A

Fa=En-20logf+65.5, dB
En=rms noise field strength in a 1kHz bandwidth in dB above 1uV/m
F=frequency in MHz

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29
Q

The range of frequency of space noise

A

8MHz-1.5GHz

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30
Q

Sources of Extraterrestrial/Space noise

A

Sun(solar Noise)
Stars(cosmic Noise)
Galaxies(galactic Noise)

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31
Q

What is the year cycle of Corona flares and sunspots?

A

11 year

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32
Q

Antenna Noise Temperature

A

Ta=0.82Tmain+0.13(Tside-Te)
Tmain=sky brightness temperature within main lobe
Tside= sky brightness temperature within side lobe
Te=effective temperature of earth (290K)

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33
Q

It is produced and introduced at the receiver by the components that make up the receiver like resistors, diodes, transistors and even wires

A

Internal noise

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34
Q

What is the primary source of thermal noise?

A

The rapid and random motion of charge carriers inside a resistive component when heated

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35
Q

RMS noise voltage formula

A 
Vn=sqrt(4BkRT) mnemonics:For BrookerT
K=boltzman constant (calcu constant 25)
T=temperature in Kelvin
B=Bandwidth
R=resistive component
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36
Q

Maximum available noise power formula

A

N=kTB, watts

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37
Q

It is caused by random fluctuations of electric current in an electric conductor, due to the fact that current is carried by discrete charges

A

Shot Noise

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38
Q

It is caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons or holes at the output of an amplifying device

A

Shot effect

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39
Q

Shot noise formula for temperature-limited vaccum-tube diode

A

I=current, A
B=bandwidth, Hz
Q=electrical charge, C (calc constant 23)

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40
Q

Shot noise for PN-Junction semiconductor diode

A

In=sqrt(2(Idc+2Is)qB)
Idc=Is(e^(qv/kT)-1)
Idc=direct diode current
Is=reverse saturation current

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41
Q

It is Caused by transit-time effect

A

Transit-time Noise

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42
Q

What is transit-time effect?

A

The time taken by an electron from the emitter to the collector. It has greater effect on microwave region

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43
Q

Noise found at the low audio frequency in transistors

A

Flicker Noise

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44
Q

Other terms of flicker noise

A

Modulation noise, excess noise, a/f noise or pink noise

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45
Q

It occurs whenever current is divided between two electrodes and results to random fluctuations

A

Partition Noise

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46
Q

Noise that appears as a series of bursts at two or more level. Also called as popcorn noise

A

Burst Noise

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47
Q

It is a large noise spike present in the avalanche current due to oscillation

A

Avalanche Noise

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48
Q

Equivalent Noise Resistance

A

Req=R1+R2/G1+R3/G1G2+R4/G1G2G3…

G=power gain == A^2

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49
Q

Signal to Noise Ratio formulas

A

S/N=Signal Power/ Noise Power

S/N(decibels)=10log(Ps/Pn)=20log(Vs/Vn)

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50
Q

What is the satisfactory telephone service S/N

A

30Db OR 1000

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51
Q

What is the satisfactory S/N for video and data?

A

45/15 decibels respectively

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52
Q

It is used to specify how noisy a device is.

A

Noise factor

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53
Q

Noise Factor Formula

A

NF=(S/N input)/(S/N output)

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54
Q

Noise Figure formula

A

10log(NoiseFactor)

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55
Q

Equivalent Noise Temperature Formula

A

Te=To(NF-1)
Te=equivalent noise temperature, K
To=reference Temperature, 290 K
NF=Noise Factor

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56
Q

Excess Noise Ratio

A

10log((Th-Tc)/Tc)

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57
Q

Friis’ Formula for overall noise factor

A

NF=NF1+(NF2-1)/G1+(NF3-1)/G1G2…

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58
Q

Friis’ Formula for overall noise Temperature

A

Te=Te1+(Te2)/G1+(Te3-1)/G1G2…

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59
Q

Total Noise power output formula

A

No=Gtk(T+Te)BW

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60
Q

Collection of offending sounds to which humans are involuntary exposed. This type of noise is usually referred to as noise pollution

A

Environmental Noise

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61
Q

In broadcast systems, it refers to the residual low level sound that is heard in quiet periods of the program/ unwanted residual electronic noise signal

A

Audio Noise

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62
Q

The inference picked up between transmitter and receiver output, often refered to as static

A

Radio Noise

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63
Q

The random dot pattern superimposed on the picture as a result of electric noise

A

Video Noise

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64
Q

A signal with flat frequency spectrum in linear space. It has the same power in any linear band

A

White Noise

Same power in 40-60 Hz as with 4000-4020Hz

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65
Q

It has a flat frequency response in the logarithmic space

A

Pink noise

Same power from 40-60Hz as with 4000-6000Hz

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66
Q

It is similar to pink noise but with a power density decrease of 6dB per octave with increasing frequency

A

Brown or red Noise

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67
Q

Noise wherein its power density increases 3dB per octave with increasing frequency

A

Blue (or Azure) Noise

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68
Q

Noise where its power density increases 6dB per octave with increasing frequency

A

Purple or violet noise

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69
Q

It is a noise subjected to a psychoacoustic equal loudness curve

A

Grey Noise

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70
Q

It is supposedly the background noise of the world

A

Green Noise

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71
Q

ITU designation of double sideband full carrier

A

A3E

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72
Q

ITU designation of Single Sideband reduced carrier

A

R3E

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73
Q

ITU designation of Single Sideband Full Carrier

A

H3E

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74
Q

ITU designation of Single Sideband suppressed carrier

A

J3E

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75
Q

ITU designation of independent sideband emission

A

B8E

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76
Q

ITU designation of Vestigial sideband

A

C3F

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77
Q

It is a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier is mode proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage

A

Amplitude modulation

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78
Q

He invented the radio that could transmit telegraph code

A

Guglielmo Marconi

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79
Q

AM Carrier signal equation

A

ec=Ecsin(ωt+θ) or Ecsin(2πf+θ)

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80
Q

AM modulating signal equation

A

Em=Emsin(ωmt)=Emsin(2πf)

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81
Q

Peak amplitude of the AM wave

A

E = Ec + Em = Ec + Emsin(ωmt)

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82
Q

Instantaneous amplitude of AM wave

A

e = Esin(ωct) = [Ec + Emsin(ωmt)]sin(ωmt)

83
Q

It is a measure of the degree of modulation

A

Modulation Index (m)

84
Q

Modulation Index formula

A

m = Em/ Ec = (Emax-Emin)/(Emax+Emin)

85
Q

Modulation Index formula in terms of current

A

m = √(2(Iᵣ²-1))

Iᵣ = It/Ic

86
Q

Modulation by several modulating signals

A

mt = √(m₁²+m₂²+…+mn²)

87
Q

Percent modulation formula

A 
%M = Em/Ec * 100%
%M = m * 100%
%M = [(Emax - Emin)/(Emax + Emin)]*100%
88
Q

A form of interference produced from the distortion when m>1

A

Sideband Splatter

89
Q

Formula for side-frequency amplitude

A

Esf = mEc/2

90
Q

Required AM bandwidth formula

A

BW = USF - LSF = (fc + fm) - (fc - fm) = 2fm

91
Q

Total power of AM signal

A 
Pt = Pc + Plsb + Pusb
Pt = Pc*(1+m²/2)

Plsb = Pusb = m²Pc/2

92
Q

Carrier power formula

A

Pc= Ec²/2R

Ec = Peak amplitude of the carrier wave
R = load impedance
93
Q

Total AM voltage formula

A

Vt = Vc√(1+m²/2)

94
Q

Total AM current formula

A

It = It√(1+m²/2)

95
Q

A nonlinear device most likely used to combine signals to generate an AM signal since it offers gain.

A

Transistors

96
Q

The simplest and most effective nonlinear device used to detect AM signal

97
Q

The first rectifying demodulator that uses crystals that are metallic such as galena, iron pyrites and carborundum.

A

Crystal Detector

98
Q

A thin pointed wire pressed against the surface of the crystal of a crystal detector

A

Cat Whisker

99
Q

The type of detector using amplifying devices like transistors in place of ordinary diodes to provide both rectification and amplification at the same time

A

Power Detector

100
Q

Has a better sensitivity than the diode detector that consists of a tuned circuit, a rectifier and RC low pass filter for recovery of the modulating signal

A

Grid-Leak Detector

101
Q

An AM detector that uses a tickler coil which generates energy from the plate circuit into the grid circuit of the triode

A

Regenerative Detector

102
Q

It is an oscillating regenerative detector

103
Q

A device that generates high frequency power by means of a suitable antenna and is radiated through space or other mediums

A

Transmitter

104
Q

The combination of a transmitter and a receiver

A

Radio System

105
Q

An AM transmitter produced by feeding the output from an audio amplifier to a transformer whose secondary is in series with the supply line feeding the RF oscillator

A

Low Level Modulation

106
Q

An AM transmitter produced by feeding the output from an audio amplifier to a transformer whose secondary is in series with the supply line feeding the power amplifier

A

High Level Modulation

107
Q

Simplest form of AM

A

Modulated Carrier Wave

108
Q

Consists of keying the modulator with a fixed AF tone

A

Class A2 Transmission

109
Q

Modulating a transmitter with voice or other frequencies in amplitude

A

Class A3 Transmission

110
Q

A device intended to receive a radio signal and extract the information or intelligence from RF signal

A

Radio Receiver

111
Q

A receiver composed of several tuned radio-frequency amplifiers followed by circuits to detect and amplify the audio signal

A

Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)

112
Q

A receiver where all signal frequencies are converted typically to a constant lower frequency before detection.

A

Superheterodyne Receiver

113
Q

The ability of the receiver to receive the desired signal and reject all others

A

Selectivity

114
Q

The ability of the receiver to amplify weak signals

A

Sensitivity

115
Q

It is the ability of the receiver to faithfully reproduce the information

116
Q

Receiver bandwidth formula

A

BW = fₒ/Q

fₒ = carrier frequency
Q = required quality factor to achieve the given bandwidth
117
Q

Low-side injections

A

f = fₒ - fᵢ

fᵢ = receiver’s intermediate frequency
= 455 kHz for AM receivers
= 10.7 MHz for FM receivers

118
Q

High-side injections

A

f = fₒ +fᵢ

fᵢ = receiver’s intermediate frequency
= 455 kHz for AM receivers
= 10.7 MHz for FM receivers

119
Q

Shape Factor Formula

A

SF = BW (-60dB)/BW (-3dB)

BW (-60dB), bandwidth at 60 dB down from the maximum
BW (-3dB), bandwidth at 60 dB down from the maximum

120
Q

Bandwidth improvement formula

A

BW(improvement) = BW(RF)/BW(IF)

121
Q

Noise figure improvement formula

A

NF(improvement) = 10log(BWimprovement)

122
Q

Image frequency formula

A

fsi = fs + 2fi

fs = desired signal frequency
fi = intermediate frequency
123
Q

Image rejection ratio formula

A 
IR = Asig / Aimage = √(1+Q²q²)
IR(dB) = 20log(Asig/Aimage) = 20 log √(1+Q²q²)

Q = quality factor of the tuned circuit
Asig = voltage gain at signal frequency
Aimage = voltage gain at image frequency
124
Q

Image rejection for High Q circuit (Q≥10)

A

IR(dB)≈ 20log(Qρ)

125
Q

Coupling coefficient of IF coupling by inductive or transformer coupling

A

k = φs/φp

φs= secondary flux
φp= primary flux
126
Q

Mutual inductance of IF coupling by inductive or transformer coupling

A

M = k√(LsLp)

L = winding conductance

127
Q

Spurious response formula

A

fsp = (m/n)fʟᴏ ± fi/n

fsp = spurious response frequency
fʟᴏ = Local Oscillator frequency
fi = intermediate frequency
m,n = any integers
128
Q

A form of AM in which only one of the sidebands is transmitted thus saving carrier power and the power of the other sideband

A

Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) or J3E

129
Q

Methods for generating SSBSC

A

Filter Method
Phase Shift Method
Weaver Method

130
Q

Employs a balanced modulaor to generate a double-sideband suppressed-carrier signal

A

Filter Method

131
Q

A baseband signal is transformed into a pair of signals having a constant 90 deg phase relationship with one another at all frequencies

A

Phase Shift Method

132
Q

A circuit that creates an in-phase and quadrature from a real signal

A

Hilbert Transformer

133
Q

It mixes baseband signals downward in frequency so that the center of the desired passband is at dc or 0 Hz.

A

Weaver Method

134
Q

Power in a sideband formula

A

Psʙ = (Pc*m²/4)

135
Q

Q of SSB filter

A

Q = [fc√(antilog(dB/20))]/4∆f

fc = carrier or center frequency (Hz)
dB = suppression of the unwanted sidband
∆f = separation between the two sidebands
136
Q

Sideband Suppression Formula

A

Sideband Suppression(dB) = 20 log (cot(Φ/2))

Φ = deviation from a perfect 90 degree phase shift
cot Φ = 1/tangent(Φ)

137
Q

An AM single sideband mode which is used with some AM radio transmissions

A

Independent Sideband

B8E

138
Q

Modulates two different input signals - one on the upper sideband and one on the lower sideband.

A

Independent Sideband

139
Q

A hybrid between double sideband and single sideband

A

Independent Sideband

140
Q

A type of AM technique that encodes data by varying the amplitude of a single carrier frequency

A

Vestigial Sideband (C3F)

141
Q

Made by removing portions of the redundant sidebands

A

Vestigial Sideband Signal

142
Q

Amplitude Modulation type commonly used in TV broadcasting

A

Vestigial Sidband

143
Q

A reduced carrier single-sideband emission.

A

Single-sideband, Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
(R3E)

(=.=”)

144
Q

A full carrier single-sideband emission,

A

Single-sidebnand, Full Carrier (SSBFC)
(H3E)

mind blown

145
Q

FM detector Sensitivity formula

A

k(subscript d) = Vₒ / δ

k(subscript d) = detector sensitivity in volts per Hertz
Vₒ = output voltage
δ = frequency deviation requered for the output voltage

146
Q

Phase Locked Loop detector output voltage formula

A

Vₒ(peak) = δ / k(subscript f)

δ = deviation of the signal
k(subscript f) = VCO proportionality constant

147
Q

Critical Coupling Factor formula

A

k(subscript c) = 1 / √(QpQs)

Qp and Qs = primary and secondary Q of a transformer

148
Q

Optimum Coupling Frequencty formula

A

k(subscript opt) = 1.5 k(subscript c)

149
Q

Bandwidth of a double-tuned amplifier formula

A

BW = k(subscript opt) fₒ = 1.5k(subscipt c)fₒ

150
Q

Modulation technique which varies the phase angle of a high-frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous amplitude of a modulating signal.

A

Angle Modulation

151
Q

Forms of Angle Modulation

A

Frequency Modulation

Phase Modulation

152
Q

And angle modulation method in which the frequency of the constant amplitude carrier signal is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the modulating signal

A

Frequency Modulation

153
Q

An angle modulation method in which the phase of the constant amplitude carrier signal is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the modulating signal

A

Phase Modulation

154
Q

It can be used to produce FM

A

Phase Modulation

155
Q

The general expression of a phase-modulated wave

A

V(t) = Vc cos (2 π fc t + k₁ Vm cos (2 π fm t))

V(t) = PM wave voltage
Vc = Peak carrier amplitude
fc = carrier frequency
k₁ = deviation sensitivity of phase modulator
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude
fm = modulating signal frequency
156
Q

FM wave expression

A

V(t) = Vc cos (ωc t + (δ/fm)sin(ωm t))

δ = frequency deviation
ωc = 2 π fc
ωm = 2 π fm
157
Q

For PM, phase deviation or modulation index formula

A

m = ∆θ = k₁ Vm

k₁ = deviation sensitivity of the PM modulator
Vm = peak modulating signal amplitude
158
Q

For FM, phase deviation or modulation index formula

A

m = (k₂ Vm)/ fm

k₂ = deviation sensitivity of the FM modulator
Vm = Peak modulating signal amplitude
fm = modulating frequency
159
Q

For PM, frequency deviation formula

A

δ = k₁ Vm fm

k₁ = deviation sensitivity of the PM waveform 
Vm  = peak modulating signal amplitude
fm = modulating signal frequency
160
Q

For FM, frequency deviation formula

A

δ = k₂ Vm

k₂ = deviation sensitivity of FM waveform

161
Q

Percent modulation formula for PM and FM

A

%M = δactual / δmax * 100%

δactual = actual frequency deviation of carrier signal
δmax = maximum frequency deviation
162
Q

Deviation ratio formula for PM and FM

A

D.R. = δmax / fm(max)

δmax = maximum peak frequency deviation of the carrier signal
fm(max) = maximum modulating frequency
163
Q

Total transmitted power for an angle-modulated waveform formula

A

Pt = (Vc)² / 2R

Vc = peak amplitude of the carrier signal
R = load resistance
164
Q

Formula for the amplitude of any side-frequency component (Jn)

A

Jn(mf) = (X)2[ (1/n!) - X²/(1!(n+1)!) + X⁴/(2!(n+2)!) - X⁶/(3!(n+3)!) + …. ]

where,
X = (m subscript f)/2

165
Q

It is used the number of significant sidebands

A

Bessel Table

166
Q

Bandwidth requirement formula for Narrowband FM

A

BW ≅ 2fm

167
Q

Bandwidth requirement formula for wideband FM

A

BW ≅ 2 δ

δ = peak frequency deviation

168
Q

Bandwidth requirement formula using the bessel function table

A

BW = 2 (n fm)

n = number of significant sidebands
fm = modulating signal frequency
169
Q

Bandwidth requirement formula using Carson’s Rule

A

BW = 2 (δ + fm)

δ = peak frequency deviation
fm = modulating signal frequency
170
Q

Maximum phase deviation due to an interfering single-frequency sinusoid

A

∆θ ≈ Vn / Vc

171
Q

Maximum frequency deviation due to an interfering single-frequency sinusoid

A

δ ≈ (Vn / Vc) fn

fn = noise modulating frequency

172
Q

An inserting effect where as long as there is a sufficient SNR at the input to the FM receiver, the FM system has substantially better noise performance than an AM system

A

Threshold Effect

173
Q

Refers to the case of two co-channel or adjacent channel FM signals being received at the same time by an FM receiver

A

Capture Effect

174
Q

Result of the capture effect

A
  • Weaker signal is considered as interference, stronger signal is captured.
  • If both signals are of equal strength, the receiver will switch back and forth between the two signals
175
Q

A high-pass filter which increases the S/N ratio at the higher frequency ends of the FM signal

A

Pre-emphasis network

176
Q

A low-pass filter that attenuates the high-frequency signals at the receiver after demodulation and restores the original amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics to the information signal

A

De-emphasis network

177
Q

Methods to generate FM

A
  • Varactor Diode Modulator
  • Reactance Modulator
  • Linear IC FM Modulator
178
Q

A direct FM generator that uses a varactor diode to deviate the frequency of a crystal oscillator

A

Varactor Diode Modulator

179
Q

A direct FM generator that uses and active device like JFET

A

Reactance Modulator

180
Q

Generates a direct FM output waveform that is relatively stable, accurate, and directly proportional to the input modulating signal

A

Linear IC Modulator

181
Q

Primary disadvantage of Linear IC FM modulator

A
  • Low output power

* Need for several additional external components for proper operation

182
Q

Methods to generate PM

A
  • Varactor Diode Modulator

* Transistor Modulator

183
Q

A PM generator that changes the instantaneous phase of the carrier by varying the phase angle of the impedance seen by the carrier

A

Varactor Diode Modulator

184
Q

A PM generator that produces a phase shift in the carrier signal proportional to the information signal by varying the emitter-to-collector resistance of the device.

A

Transistor Modulator

185
Q

A FM transmitter that uses a reactance modulator or a VCO to produce large frequency deviations.

A

Crosby Direct FM Transmitter

186
Q

A transmitter that employs frequency multiplier circuits to increase the deviation to the maximum level used in transmission

A

Crosby Direct FM Transmitter

187
Q

In the Crosby Direct FM Transmitter, it is used to compensate for the frequency drift of the modulator stage

188
Q

A wideband FM transmitter that uses a phase-locked-loop to achieve the same frequency stability from the VCO as in a crystal oscillator and generate a high-index wideband FM output signal.

A

Phase-Locked Loop Direct FM Transmitter

189
Q

An indirect FM transmitter that produces an output waveform where the phase deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal

A

Armstrong Transmitter

190
Q

A circuit that reduces unwanted amplitude variations in an FM waveform by producing a constant amplitude output for all input signals above prescribed minimum input level

A

Basic FM Limiter Circuit

191
Q

A frequency discriminator that converts FM to AM before demodulating the AM envelope with a conventional peak detector circuit

A

Slope Detector

192
Q

Composed of two single-ended slope detectors connected in parallel and fed 180ᵒ out-of-phase

A

Balanced Slope Detector

193
Q

A tuned-circuit frequency discriminator whose operation is similar to the balanced slope detector

A

Foster-Seeley Discriminator

194
Q

An FM demodulator that provides an advantage of not requiring limiter circuit preceding it

A

Ratio Detector

195
Q

An FM demodulator that involves the use of linear integrated circuits

A

Phase-Locked Loop Demodulator

196
Q

An FM demodulator that extracts the original information signal from the composite IF waveform by multiplying two (90 - out of phase) quadrature signals.

A

Quadrature FM Demodulator

197
Q

Applications for Angle Modulation

A
  1. ) Commercial Radio Broadcasting
  2. ) Television Sound Transmission
  3. ) Two-way FM Radio
  4. ) Mobile Telephone Service
  5. ) Cellular Radio System
  6. ) FM Microwave Radio Communications System
198
Q

A modulation system where it is not possible to have a two-channel system with a left channel and a right channel transmitted simultaneously and independently

A

Stereo FM Transmission

199
Q

The sum signal composed of 50-15000 Hz which modulates the carrier like in monaural transmission

A

L+R Signal

200
Q

The difference signal translated to 23-53kHz before transmission in the transmitter’s balanced modulator

A

L-R Signal

201
Q

An optional signal which is transmitted alongside the L+R and L-R components

A

SCA Signal

Subsidiary Communications Authorization

202
Q

Advantages of Angle Modulation over Amplitude Modulation

A
  • Noise immunity
  • Signal-to-noise improvement
  • Capture Effect
  • Efficiency of utilized power
203
Q

Disadvantages of Angle Modulation over Amplitude Modulation

A
  • Wider Bandwidth for Transmission

- Circuit Complexity and Cost

Bryx_EST (5 decks)

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