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Biology 109 Test #3 > Principles of Animal Form and Function > Flashcards

Principles of Animal Form and Function Flashcards

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1
Q

What dictates and limits animal forms (anatomy and physiology)?

A

Physical laws: gravity, heat, water properties.

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2
Q

What is convergence evolution? What are some examples of this?

A

This is the evolution of similar structures in different organisms to adapt to environmental challenge.

Tuna (fish), penguin (bird), and seal (mammal) all have streamlined bodies for swimming and have some means of buoyancy.

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3
Q

What is the rate of exchange of dissolved substances proportional to?

What is the amount of material being exchanged proportional to?

How would the surface area to volume ratio be in a whale in comparison to a flatworm?

A

The membrane surface area that is being crossed during exchange.

Amount is proportional to the volume. (amoeba has less volume therefore less material to exchange)

Whale would have much small surface area to volume ratio than a flatworm.

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4
Q

How is exchange of materials with environment enhanced in multicellular animals?

A

Membranes are extensively branched or folded to increase surface area.

Lungs, GI tract, circulatory system, excretory system.

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5
Q

What is the substance that lies between cells to link exchange surfaces between cells?

A

Interstitial fluid

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6
Q

What are the 4 levels of cellular organization and a basic description that we cover in class?

A

Cells - basic unit of life

Tissues - groups of cells with a common function

Organs - functional units of different types of tissues

Organ systems - groups of organs that work together

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7
Q

What are the 4 tissue types found in animals and their BASIC function?

A
  1. Epithelial - lining/barrier, closely packed sheets.
  2. Connective - connection, holds tissues and organs in place.
  3. Muscle - body movement
  4. Nervous - receives, processes, and responds to information
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8
Q

What is meant by epithelial tissues being polar? What are the two surfaces of the tissue and their positions?

A

They have two different sides:

  • Apical surface - faces the lumen (cavity) OR the outside of the organ and if exposed to fluids or air.

Basal surface - The opposite surface to the apical surface.

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9
Q

What does squamous vs. columnar vs. cuboidal mean in regards to epithelial tissue? What about simple vs. stratified vs. pseudostratified?

A

Squamous - Scale or Flat (think squished)

Columnar - rectangular or brick shaped

Cuboidal - dice or square-shaped

simple - 1 cell layer

stratified - multiple cell layers

pseudostratified - single layer of cells varying in height and position of nuclei

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10
Q

How many cell types, tissue types, organs, and organ systems do humans have?

A

Cells - 200 types

organs - 80 organs

organ systems - 11 systems

tissues - 4 types

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11
Q

Where in the body might you find stratified squamous tissue and what is their function?

A

Function: tissue that regenerates rapidly, usually subject to constant abraison that sloughs off and gives PROTECTION

skin, mouth, anus

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12
Q

Where in the body might you find simple cuboidal tissue and what is the function?

A

Function: specialized for secretion

epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands (thyroid, salivary)

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13
Q

Where in the body might you find simple columnar tissue and what is the function?

A

Function: Secretion and absorption

Lines intestines, secretion of digestive juices and absorbing nutrients

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14
Q

Where in the body might you find simple squamous tissue and what is the function?

A

Function: diffusion

blood vessels, alveoli of lungs

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15
Q

Where in the body might you find pseudostratified columnar tissue and what is the function?

A

Function: movement of material (many have cilia)

respiratory tract along trachea and bronchi

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16
Q

What is a general characteristic of connective tissue?

What makes up the ECM of connective tissue?

A

sparse population of cells scattered throughout abundant extracellular matrix (ECM) that consists of web of fibers embedded in liquid, semi-solid, or solid foundation

made of web of fibers, also within the matrix are fibroblasts (secrete proteins) and macrophages (phagocytize)

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17
Q

What are the three kinds of connective tissue fibers?

A

collagenous - strength and flexibility

reticular fibers - join connective tissues to adjacent tissues

elastic fibers - make tissues elastic

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18
Q

What are the six different types of connective tissues covered in class and their basic function?

A

Loose - binds epithelia to underlying tissue and holds organs in place

Fibrous - tendons and ligaments

Bone - makes up skeleton

Blood - liquid ECM (plasma) that carries RBC (carry O2), WBC (defense), and platelets (cell fragments aid in blood clotting)

Adipose - padding, insulation, energy storage.

Cartilage - collagen embeded in protein-carbohydrate complex (chondroitin sulfate). strong and flexible.

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19
Q

Where might you find collagen?

A

Intervertebral discs, may make up skeleton and can be replaced by bone as skeleton matures.

INBETWEEN BONES

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20
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue discussed?

A

Skeletal

Smooth

Cardiac

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21
Q

Skeletal muscle:

Function?

Voluntary of involuntary?

Striated (streaks)?

Found where?

Unique characteristics?

A

connect bones together for movement of body

voluntary

striated

arms, legs, abdomen

multiple nuclei, lots of mitochondria (requires lots of energy)

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22
Q

Smooth muscle:

Function?

Voluntary of involuntary?

Striated?

Found where?

Unique characteristics?

A

churning of stomach, peristalsis, constriction of arteries

Involuntary

Not striated

Blood vessels, intestines, iris

One nucleus per cell

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23
Q

Cardiac muscle:

Function?

Voluntary of involuntary?

Striated (streaks)?

Found where?

Unique characteristics?

A

contractile muscle of wall of heart

involuntary

striated

heart

branched fibers, intercalated disks (relay signal from cell to cell synchroniously)

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24
Q

What does glia mean and what is its function?

A

Glue

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25
Q

What are the two cell types that compose nervous tissue and their function?

A

Neurons - basic unit of nervous system, receive and transmit impulses

Glial cells (glia) - support cells of neurons that help nourish, insulate, modulate function, and replenish neurons.

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26
Q

What are the three parts of a neuron and their characteristics and function?

A

Cell body - most of cytoplasm, houses nucleus and organelles

Dendrites - receives electrical impulses, many of them to receive multiple impulses

Axon - ONLY ONE, transmits impulses

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27
Q

What are the two divisions of the nervous system?

A

CNS - brain and spinal cord that interprets and directs output

PNS - nerves (bundled axons) and ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicate signal to and from CNS

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28
Q

What are the two systems that function in communication between different parts of the body?

A

The endocrine and nervous system

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29
Q

How does the endocrine system facilitate communication between different parts of the body?

A

Hormones secreted into the bloodstream.

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30
Q

What cells do hormones bind to? How fast do they generally act and how long do their effects generally last?

A

Cells that have the specific receptor for that hormone, or target cells.

Slow acting but tend to be long lasting.

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31
Q

How does the nervous system facilitate communication between different parts of the body?

A

nerve impulses causes release of neurotransmitters from neuron to: neuron, muscle cell, endocrine cell (works in conjunction with endocrine system), or exocrine cell

32
Q

How fast do nerve impulses and neurotransmitters generally act and how long do their effects generally last?

A

Generally fast acting and short lasting.

33
Q

What are the two ways in which an organism can maintain their internal environment, what would an example of these be in response to temperature?

A

Regulating - endotherm

Conforming - ectotherm

NOT JUST FOR TEMPERATURE

34
Q

In regards to internal environment maintenance, how does a regulator function?

A

Maintains internal environment despite a change to external variables

35
Q

In regards to internal environment maintenance, how does a conformer function?

A

Alters its internal environment in response to a change in an external variable.

36
Q

What does homeostasis mean?

A

“steady state”

Internal balance achieved by keeping a constant internal environment even with changes to external environment.

37
Q

In regards to homeostasis, what is a set point? stimulus? sensor? response?

A

set point - particular value for a given variable

stimulus - changes in the variable

sensor - detects the stimulus

response - returns variable back to set point

38
Q

What are the two types of feedback control in homeostasis? Describe them a little.

A

Negative feedback - The response is to reduce or dampen stimulus and return it to set point or normal range. (like control of body temperature) MOST COMMON

Positive feedback - do not contribute to homeostasis. amplify stimulus to drive a process to completion (like contractions in labor)

39
Q

Do slight alterations in homeostatic ranges occur? What are some examples of this?

A

YES

Circadian rhythm - cyclic alterations in metabolism, set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours. Such as when our melatonin levels rise when we sleep and our core body temperature lowers.

Acclimatization - a temporary adjustment to the external environment. such as in high altitudes we increases our respiratory rate and depth and increase our RBC production to increase O2 carrying capacity.

40
Q

Why are circadian rhythms important to study?

A

Some drugs works best at different times of day based on the circadian rhythms of the body.

41
Q

How does acclimatization differ from adaptation?

A

adaptation is the process of change brought on by natural selection acing over many generations.

42
Q

What is thermoregulation?

A

The process by which animals maintain their internal temperature to a tolerable range.

43
Q

If we are unable to thermoregulate and the external temperature was to increase dramatically what would happen to things internally such as enxyme activity, speed of reactions, ability of hemoglobin to bind to O2, and the fluidity of the plasma membrane?

A

Enzyme activity would decrease

Speed of reactions would initially increase but decrease as temperature become too extreme and proteins unfold and denature

decreased ability of hemoglobin to bind to O2

Increase in plasma membrane fluidity

44
Q

What are the primary sources of heat for thermoregulation?

A

Internal metabolism

External environment

45
Q

What is an endotherm & ectotherm?

Homeotherm & poikilotherm?

A

Endotherm - animal that is warmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals and birds)

Ectotherm - warmed by external sources and conforms to external temp (reptiles and fish)

Homeotherm - maintains relatively constant internal temp. (mammals and birds)

Poikilotherm - body temperature varies with its environment (non-avian reptiles and fish)

46
Q

Which thermoregulators require a constant food supply but can survive in harsh (cold) environments?

A

Homeotherms and endotherms

47
Q

Where does heat always travel from? So heat exchange is when something goes from?

A

Hot to cold.

Hot to cold.

48
Q

What are the 4 ways animals exchange heat?

A

radiation, evaporation, convection, conduction.

49
Q

Describe radiation. Example.

A

The emission of EM waves. Heat energy is radiated off body into surrounding air while body absorbs heat radiating from sun.

50
Q

Describe evaporation. Example.

A

removal of heat from surface of liquid by losing molecules as gas. water evaporates from skin surface, taking heat with it to cool down animal.

51
Q

Describe convection. Example.

A

The transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface, like a breeze cooling causes heat loss from skin or when blood moves heat from core to the extremities.

52
Q

Describe conduction. Example.

A

When objects make contact and transfer heat between one another. Like when a lizard sits on a hot rock to receive heat.

53
Q

What is the primary system that controls the rate of heat gain and loss?

A

Integumentary system.

54
Q

What are 5 adaptations to thermoregulation that animals have?

A
  1. Insulation - reduces flow of heat between body and environment
  2. Circulatory systems
  3. Cooling by evaporative heat loss
  4. Behavioral responses
  5. Adjusting metabolic heat production
55
Q

What are some forms of insulation that animals have? How are some used?

A

feathers, fur, fat/adipose tissue

Feathers and fur is raised to trap a large layer of air to increase effectiveness of insulation, humans have less fur but still have a “goose bump” effect that we see on our skin

56
Q

Describe the circulatory adaptations to thermoregulation that animals have.

A

Vasodilation - releases more heat

Vasoconstriction - Conserves more heat

Countercurrent exchange - reduces heat loss from body by transferring heat between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions. So in a body arteries and veins would be located near each other so that arteries can exchange their heat to the veins that are heading back to the body core to keep it warmer. This occurs along the length of the exchanger maximizing the rate of exchange. LOOK AT CANADA GOOSE EXAMPLE AND DOLPHIN FIN EXAMPLE IN BOOK.

57
Q

Describe thermoregulatory adaptation of cooling by evaporative heat loss and give examples.

A

Sweating, panting, bathing

Water absorbs a lot of heat, so when water is evaporated from skin through sweat, or when we bathe, or when dogs pant and water is evaporated through respiratory surfaces we are cooled down.

58
Q

Describe thermoregulatory adaptation of behavioral responses and give examples.

A

Literally just going where its warmer or cooler.

hibernation, migration, posture (dragonfly posturing to heat less from sun), huddling (bunch of bees huddled together).

59
Q

Describe thermoregulatory adaptation of adjusting metabolic heat production and give examples. what does thermogenesis mean and what are the two types?

A

Thermogenesis = heat production.

2 Types:

Shivering thermogenesis = small and quick muscle movements that generate heat.

Nonshivering thermogenesis - metabolism to make ATP is by-passed and results in heat production. Protons travel down thermogenins rather than ATP synthase.

60
Q

What was an example of nonshivering thermogenesis that we discussed in class?

A

Newborns have brown adipose tissue that has many mitochondria that contain iron (gives it its brown color), this adipose tissues helps in the nonshivering thermogenesis process for infants until they develop other means of thermogenesis. These tissues can be found in other mammals and adult humans as well.

61
Q

What is DNP? Why was it harmful?

A

This used to be a weight loss supplement that stimulated nonshivering thermogenesis in adults which caused fatty acids and fats to be metabolized faster than glucose to maintain ATP quota.

Harmful side effects included overheating, tachycardia, tachypnea, diaphoresis, and death

62
Q

What is an example of how acclimatization can apply in thermoregulation?

A

Growing a thicker coat in the winter

Changing lipid concentration in plasma membrane

cryoprotectants in blood
- wood frogs allow urea and glucose to accumulate in blood to prevent it from freezing, will survive as long as <65% of body water freezes

Wood frogs also stop breathing and heart stops beating during the freezes.

63
Q

How does Acclimatization differ from adaptations in regards to thermoregulation?

A

Acclimatization is usually a large physiological response to changes in seasons for example

The theroregulatory adaptations are constantly balancing heat gains and heat losses

64
Q

What is the human bodies thermostat as well as circadian clock?

A

hypothalamus

65
Q

LOOK AT FEEDBACK LOOP OF HYPOTHALAMUS IN RESPONSE TO HEAT CHANGE. P.887.

A

DO IT

66
Q

What is one way birds and mammals respond to infections?

A

Fever - elevation in body temperature

This increase in temperature is meant to kill of bacteria

67
Q

What is another name for thermogenins?

A

UCPs (uncoupling proteins)

68
Q

What are bioenergetics? What is the purpose of this? What is it generally related to?

A

The overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal.

Helps to determine how much food an animal needs

Related to animals size, activity level, and environment

69
Q

What is metabolic rate defined as? How is it determined?

A

the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.

determining rate of heat loss OR by determining the amount of O2 consumed OR carbon dioxide produced.

70
Q

What are the two minimum metabolic rates we calculate and what are their differences and similarities?

A

Basal metabolic rate - nonstressed, resting, fasted, nongrowing endotherm at a COMFORTABLE temperature

Standard metabolic rate - resting, fasted, nonstressed ectotherm at a particular temperature

71
Q

Do endotherms or ectotherms tend to have a slower metabolic rate relative to size? What was the example given on the powerpoint?

A

ectotherms

Human male = BMR - 1600-1800 kcal/day

American alligator = SMR - 60 kcal/day

72
Q

What are some things that can influence the metabolic rate?

A

ectothermy vs. endothermy

age

sex

activity level

temperature

nutrition

73
Q

What is the relation between size and metabolic rate?

A

Generally, larger animals have more body mass and require more metabolic energy, however, per kilogram size has an INVERSE relationship to BMR

this means that the smaller the mass of the animal the higher its BMR is per kilogram.

So an elephant has a higher BMR in general in comparison to a mouse, but per kilogram the mouses BMR is higher

74
Q

Describe the relationship of activity and metabolic rate.

A

The maximum metabolic rate has an inverse relationship the duration of activity.

The shorter the activity duration the higher the maximum metabolic rate is.

75
Q

What are the components of the energy budget of both endotherms and ectotherms? Does this vary from animal to animal? Why?

A

BMR (endotherm) or SMR (ectotherm)

Reproduction

Thermoregulation (notice how in pie chart that ectotherms allocate almost no energy towards thermoregulation, like the snakes)

Activity

Growth (changes based on if animal is growing)

This does vary due to differences in environment, behavior, size, and thermoregulatory processes

76
Q

What is torpor and what does it allow? What are some examples of this?

A

This is a physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism that allows for the conservation of energy in difficult conditions.

Hibernation - a long-term torpor, animal cools down to near or below freezing

Daily torpor - small mammals may be active for either the day or night while acquiring food and use the opposite time of day to conserve energy, their body temperature usually drops in this process as well

LOOK AT LAST PICTURE IN PPT

Biology 109 Test #3 (5 decks)

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