Prime Minister and The Executive

Question 1

What’s the structure of the executive branch?

Answer 1

His Majesty’s government consists of the PM, the cabinet, junior ministers, parliamentary under-secretaries and whips (drawn from the HoC and HoL), government departments and civil service

Question 2

What does a PM do?

Answer 2

The head of government and chair of the cabinet. Also head of the executive branch.

Question 3

How many people are in the cabinet and what do they do?

Answer 3

22 cabinet ministers
The committee of senior ministers which is the ultimate decision-making body of government.

Question 4

How many people are junior ministers, parliamentary under-secretaries and whips and what do they do?

Answer 4

80 MPs and about 25 peers
Appointed by the PM to specify policy portfolios within the government.

Question 5

How many people are in government departments and what do they do?

Answer 5

There are currently 24 ministerial departments, 20 non-ministerial departments, and 422 agencies and other public bodies, for a total of 465 departments.
The main administrative units of central government, each dealing with a particular area of policy. Secondary legislation.

Question 6

How many people are in the civil service and what do they do?

Answer 6

529,000
Civil servants are employed as ‘servants of the crown’ to help ministers make and implement policy. They’re politically neutral and serve each government impartially.

Question 7

What are the 3 institutions that make up the political executive and what does it mean?

Answer 7

PM, cabinet and ministers
Politicians who enter office as MPs or peers from the political party that won the last general election.

Question 8

What is the core executive and what does it include?

Answer 8

The heart of government
Those organisations and people who coordinate central government activity. Includes PM, cabinet, cabinet committees, bilateral meetings between PM and ministers, PM’s Office and coordinating departments.

Question 9

What gives the core executive model power? What other branch gives them that power?

Answer 9

Power is based on dependence rather than command. HoC. Legislative branch

Question 10

What are the 3 roles of the executive branch?

Answer 10

Making policy decisions
Proposing legislation
Proposing a budget

Question 11

What is the role of making policy decisions with examples?

Answer 11

The PM and cabinet set political priorities and determine the country’s overall policy direction. They also make day-to-day decisions on policy. The administrative executive is responsible for policy implementation and oversees the day-to-day administration of the state.
Eg. Brexit- Johnson and May had it as a policy
Covid
Ofsted

Question 12

What is the role of proposing legislation with examples?

Answer 12

The executive devises and initiates legislation. Most primary legislation (bills) is proposed by the executive. Gov bills put into effect the policies proposed in the manifesto of the governing party. The executive itself has law-making powers on secondary legislation.
Eg. Rwanda Bill, Gaza ceasefire, EVEL, Voyeurism (Offences) Bill in 2018, criminialising upskirting

Question 13

What is the role of proposing a budget with examples?

Answer 13

The executive makes key decisions on economic policy and proposes a budget. The chancellor sets out proposed levels of taxation and public spending in the budget, following negotiations in cabinet and with government departments.
Eg. Liz Truss cutting taxes, military budget sending money to Ukraine, in March 2020, government proposed £12bn of extra spending to provide economic stability in the face of Covid Budgetary bills often get called a vote of no confidence if it fails - PM out

Question 14

What is the royal prerogative?

Answer 14

A set of powers exercised by government ministers, or by the monarch, which do not require parliamentary approval

Question 15

What are the 5 prerogative powers?

Answer 15

Making and ratifying treaties
International diplomacy
Deployment of armed forces overseas
PM’s patronage powers and ability to recommend the dissolution of parliament
The organisation of the civil service

Question 16

What are examples of making and ratifying treaties?

Answer 16

UK and Rwanda
Lisbon Treaty 2008
Treaty of Rome (entering EU)
Brexit Treaty
Good Friday Agreement 1998

Question 17

What are examples of international diplomacy?

Answer 17

UN- Barkara Woodward is UK ambassador (used to be China’s ambassador)
G20 Summit
G7

Question 18

What are examples of deployment of armed forces overseas?

Answer 18

Falkland War 1982
Iraq War 2003
Afghanistan 2001
Yemen (Houthi rebels missiles) 2023
Syria 2018

Question 19

What are examples of the PM’s patronage powers and ability to recommend the dissolution of parliament?

Answer 19

Brown- dissolved Parliament
Blair- Peter Mandelson
Sunak- David Cameron became Foreign Secretary 2023
Johnson tried to prorogue Parliament in 2019
Matt Hancock
Theresa May snap election 2017
Suella Braverman (against pro-Palestinian protests), now James Cleverly

Question 20

What are examples of the organisation of the civil service?

Answer 20

Thatcher constantly tried to cut down on spending of civil service
Blair passed Freedom of Information Act 2000 to make civil service more transparent

Question 21

What is control of the legislative agenda with examples?

Answer 21

Most bills are proposed by the government and it controls the legislative timetable (can limit debate on bills). Most government bills are approved by Parliament and become law. Private members’ bills that do not enjoy government support are unlikely to succeed.

Question 22

What are powers of secondary legislation (delegated legislation) with examples?

Answer 22

Allows the provisions of an Act of Parliament to be brought into force or amended by ministers without requiring a further Act. Acts give ministers the power to make more detailed rules and regulations through statutory instruments (SIs). Thousands are issued each year and scrutinised by parliamentary committees but most are not debated or rejected. Eg. Covid and Brexit

Question 23

When did secondary legislation peak?

Answer 23

In 2001 at over 4,000 because of 9/11.
Gone down since 2015 (over 2,000) under Cameron

Question 24

What is the role of the PM?

Answer 24

Head of UK government. He or she provides political leadership within the cabinet system and the country at large, chairs the cabinet, appoints ministers and is the leader of the largest party in HoC.

Question 25

Who was the first PM and what gave him that power?

Answer 25

Robert Walpole (1721-42) because he commanded majority support in the Commons and cabinet.

Question 26

Name a PM since 1979 that resigned due to an election defeat

Answer 26

Gordon Brown

Question 27

Name a PM since 1979 that lost the confidence of their party after an election

Answer 27

Theresa May

Question 28

Name a PM since 1979 that was defeated by a motion of no confidence

Answer 28

James Callaghan

Question 29

Name a PM since 1979 that led the losing side of a referendum

Answer 29

David Cameron- Brexit

Question 30

What are the 4 roles of the PM in the executive branch with examples?

Answer 30

Appointing the government- 2019 May had a split cabinet, Cameron had 5 LibDems in cabinet during coalition, Sunak appointed Cameron as Foreign Secretary
Chairing the cabinet- Thatcher held multiple cabinet meetings every week to make sure vote was in agreement, Johnson’s cabinet took a greater role in running country than Parliament over Covid
Managing the executive- John Major had a divided cabinet over Europe but survived leadership challenge, Blair had to manage Brown’s ambitions
Prerogative powers- Civil service,1992 under Major, minister of science and education split

Question 31

What are the 4 roles of the PM in the UK government with examples?

Answer 31

Political leadership- Blair with New Labour, Thatcher with Thatcherism, Brown with G20 Summit, Sunak sacked Lee Anderson
National leadership- Johnson with national vaccination programme, Thatcher with miner strikes 1982
Managing relations with parliament- Johnson prorogued Parliament in 2019 which the Supreme Court ruled as unlawful, Liz Truss faced a rejection of her budget, these votes are seen as votes of confidence
Prerogative powers- power to decide when parliamentary sessions happen (Johnson)

Question 32

What are the PM’s 2 roles internationally?

Answer 32

Representing the UK in international affairs- Tony Blair met world leaders to set foreign policy without Cabinet colleagues like the Foreign Secretary with him
Prerogative powers- International diplomacy when Cameron didn’t invade Syria, Johnson finalising Brexit

Question 33

How does the PM interact with the media using examples?

Answer 33

Rishi Sunak’s Instagram- posts of him meeting children in schools, photo with the disabled, family-orientated
X- lots of work with schools, video of Sunak calling Joe Biden (shows diplomacy), going to G20 saying countries have to work together, photo with Zelensky

Question 34

What are the 3 requirements a PM needs to meet with detail and examples?

Answer 34

Be a member of parliament- HoC is dominant chamber so it’s a constitutional convention that the PM should be an MP in HoC, Harold Macmillan resigned as PM in 1963 so the Earl of Home succeeded him as Conservative party leader and thus PM
Be leader of a political party- PM must command the support of their party, if forced to step down as party leader they also relinquish office of PM, in 1990 Thatcher resigned as PM after failing to win the Conservative party leadership election, four of the last 6 PMs (Major, Brown, May and Johnson) took office when the incumbent resigned which means a leadership contest within the governing party determined PM
The political party they lead will normally have a majority in HoC- Most PMs enter office by winning a GE, PMs defeated in a GE must resign, the monarch invites the leader of the party that can command a majority in HoC to form a government, PM accepts office at a private audience with sovereign, 2010 GE produced a hung parliament and a Conservative-LibDem coalition gov was formed, Conservatives formed a majority government after losing their parliamentary majority at the 2017 GE agreeing to a confidence and supply deal with DUP

Question 35

When does a hung parliament occur?

Answer 35

When no party has an absolute majority of seats so the incumbent PM can form a minority or coalition government

Question 36

What is a majority government and which PMs have had one since 1979?

Answer 36

One political party has an absolute majority of seats in HoC which forms the government. Gov ministers are members of this one party.
Thatcher, Major, Johnson, Truss, Sunak

Question 37

What is a minority government and who last had one?

Answer 37

No political party has an absolute majority of seats in HoC. One party without a majority forms a government but must try to secure support from other parties in order to pass key measures like confidence and supply deal. All gov ministers are members of this party.
Theresa May 2017

Question 38

What is a coalition government and who last had one?

Answer 38

No political party has an absolute majority of seats in HoC. Two or more parties agree a deal to form a coalition government, with a formal agreement on a policy programme. Ministerial positions are shared between the 2 or more governing parties, based on a formal agreement on the distribution of posts.
2010

Question 39

Where is the Prime Minister’s Office located?

Answer 39

10 Downing Street

Question 40

Who works in PMO?

Answer 40

Senior civil servants and special advisers. PMs appoint their own senior advisers

Question 41

What is the role of the Chief of Staff? Who is the current one?

Answer 41

The most influential adviser and works at the centre of operations in Downing Street

Question 42

What is the role of the Principal Private Secretary to the PM?

Answer 42

The most senior civil servant and is head of PM’s Office.

Question 43

What 2 pieces of work does the PMO undertake with examples?

Answer 43

Policy advice- Provides PM with policy advice, which may differ from that given by ministers, PMO also helps to set the future direction of government policy, Cameron initially disbanded the policy and strategy inits but established the Policy and Implementation Unit
Communications- PMO is responsible for presentation of government policy to public. Increasing importance with more media focus on PM, the position of director of communications is often held by people with experience of working in the media, like Blair’s influential adviser Alastair Campbell

Question 44

What are the two reasons for Johnson’s perilous position?

Answer 44

-decision to attend a drinks party in breach of guidelines in May 2020 and No10 repeatedly denying any rules were broken when Partygate allegations first came to light
-Nov 2020 Johnson’s decision to cut ties with Vote Leave

Question 45

What 2 victories was Dominic Cummings responsible for?

Answer 45

-secure vote for Brexit in EU referendum
-Johnson becoming party leader

Question 46

What was Carrie Johnson’s influence?

Answer 46

Infighting broke out over the direction of Johnson’s government between the Vote Leave faction and the PM’s wife Carrie and her friends. Cummings and Cain departed.

Question 47

What tools has Cummings used in his war against Johnson?

Answer 47

Used his Substack blog to flag up the event of Johnson attending a Downing Street party to journalists.

Question 48

What are the pros and cons for PM in terms of him being able to keep his job?

Answer 48

Pros- stays PM, doesn’t give in
Cons- Cummings will keep going and the Sue Gray report into the Downing Street party culture led to an extensive cull of staff so he’ll need a new team

Question 49

Why might other Spads (Special Advisors) make some noise in the future?

Answer 49

PM axing tens of staff to keep himself in power

Question 50

What are the PM’s 5 powers over the executive?

Answer 50

Patronage powers
Appointing cabinet ministers
Policy-making input
Party leadership
Public standing

Question 51

What are patronage powers with examples?

Answer 51

Life peers- PM can appoint people to HoL as life peers, or former MPs/party supporters who’ve made big contributions to public life, PM makes political recommendations so they can alter balance of power in HoL
The Honors System- Nominations now considered Honors made up with civil servant and people independent of government, PM accepts their list but if there’s a nominee who has donated money to the party, committee considers if they’re deceiving (due to ‘cash for honours’ allegation)
Cameron became a life peer upon appointment as Foreign Secretary by Sunak in Nov 2023

Question 52

What is appointing cabinet ministers with examples? 1

Answer 52

Senior Party Members- PM faces informal constraints on their choice of ministers, unlikely to overlook senior party figures, some of whom may be rivals for their job
Dismissals- May and Johnson both dismissed many ministers who’d served under their predecessors after taking office
Ideological Views- A cabinet that contains politicians from only one wing of a party may not have the full support of that party
Diversity- Desirable to appoint ministers from different parts of the country and to include both MPs with experience and rising stars
Brown agreed not to stand against Blair in 1995 Labour leadership election for assurance that he’d be chancellor of exchequer in Labour gov
In 2016, 15 ministers who had attended cabinet under Cameron were not appointed under May’s. in 2019, 17 ministers from May’s cabinet not in Johnson’s.
Thatcher included both economic ‘dries’ (Thatcherites) and ‘wets’ (one-nation Conservatives) to her first cabinet but gave key positions to dries
Blair had an Old Labour deputy PM John Prescott
Johnson’s 2021 cabinet had 7 ministers from BAME backgrounds but only 8/30 ministers entitled to attend cabinet were women (lower than May)

Question 53

What is appointing cabinet ministers with examples? 2

Answer 53

Cabinet Reshuffles- Series of changes to personell of cabinet and positions they occupy instigated by PM
Failed Reshuffles- Dismissing cabinet members can backfire as it can raise questions about PM’s judgement, reveal cabinet decisions and highlight policy failures
Refusals- Senior ministers can disrupt a PM’s plan to shuffle a cabinet by refusing to change posts
Suella Braverman resigned in 2023 as she called protests hate marches
Johnson’s reshuffle in 2020 caused problems as chancellor Sajid Javid resigned after refusing PM’s demand to replace his special advisers
Harold Macmillan’s 1962 reshuffle sacked 7 cabinet ministers
In 2009, Brown planned to make Ed Balls chancellor, but Alistair Darling refused to change posts so Brown abandoned it

Question 54

What is appointing cabinet ministers with examples? 3

Answer 54

Role Leading Cabinet- As chair of cabinet, PM starts and sums up discussion. If a group of senior ministers promote an alternative pov, PM may not get what they want
Agenda Setting- PM can determine agenda of cabinet meetings by controlling information presented to ministers by determining which issues and papers should be brought before cabinet, and by keeping potentially difficult issues off the cabinet agenda by dealing with them in a cabinet committee or in a bilateral meeting with relevant ministers, and by deciding the chair, membership and remit of cabinet committees
Johnson established a cabinet committee on the Union to push forward his agenda. Also closed department for international development and transferred its function to foreign office.

Question 55

What is policy-making input with examples?

Answer 55

PM can get involved in issues across the political spectrum. They’re the most important actor when crisis occurs and take an active interest in foreign and economic policy.
Thatcher invading Falklands strengthened her position
2003 invasion of Iraq undermined Blair’s position
Truss’ decision to lower taxes to ease cost of living

Question 56

What is party leadership with examples?

Answer 56

Working majorities in parliament strengthens the position of the PM as they’re better able to enact the government’s programme. However, more rebellions by backbenchers means that the PM cannot always rely on party support. Labour and Tory leaders are elected by MPs and party members.
Conservative LibDem coalition gov’s proposal on HoL reform was dropped after a rebellion from Tory MPs
Thatcher was forced from office after failing to win the 1998 Conservative leadership contest

Question 57

What is public standing with examples?

Answer 57

PM has a high public profile both at home and abroad. Acts as a chief communicator, presenting the gov’s policy and objectives. Twice a year they must appear in front of the Liaison Committee as a formal expression of their role.
Thatcher and Blair (strong rs w US president)
Liz Truss at 66% disliked on YouGov polls in 2024

Question 58

What is the cabinet?

Answer 58

Where executive power is located. Members all exercise responsibility (cabinet government thesis).

Question 59

What has happened to the power of the cabinet as time has gone on?

Answer 59

Decreased as it now only plays a limited role in decision-making because key policy decisions are taken elsewhere.

Question 60

What power does the cabinet have over the PM and where has this been used?

Answer 60

PM uses the support of cabinet, risks losing office. Happened with Thatcher as cabinet members became concerned about her leadership and after she failed to win on the first ballot of the 1990 Conservative leadership contest, they told her she should stand down.

Question 61

How many senior ministers are there in cabinet?

Answer 61

22

Question 62

How many additional members has Sunak invited into the cabinet and how does this compare with Cameron and Johnson?

Answer 62

Sunak- 8
Cameron- 10
Johnson- 6

Question 63

What does a member of cabinet head up for the government with examples?

Answer 63

Government departments
Eg. Treasury, Foreign Office, Home Office

Question 64

What is the role of the deputy PM and who was given this role in the coalition government?

Answer 64

Not a fixed position, they have no specific powers or responsibilities
Nick Clegg from LibDems

Question 65

Alongside being cabinet ministers, what other role do they need to have? Which house have most come from? What is an example of a Lord with a cabinet position in Sunak’s government?

Answer 65

Also need to be an MP so they’re politically accountable to Parliament.
Come from HoC
Sunak appointed Cameron as Foreign Secretary in 2023 from HoL

Question 66

How often are cabinet meetings?

Answer 66

Once a week

Question 67

How else do PMs sometimes meet with cabinet members?

Answer 67

Virtually, Cameron, May and Johnson preferred to do business outside of cabinet (individually)

Question 68

How are cabinet meetings run?

Answer 68

Formal- there’s a fixed seating arrangement, agenda is set in advance, items are introduced by department ministers
Intervention from senior ministers and relevant departmental ministers given priority

Question 69

What are the 3 types of cabinet committees with examples?

Answer 69

Ministerial standing committees- these are permanent for the PM’s term in office, have considerable autonomy to decide the direction of policy and only when a final verdict has been reached will the cabinet concern itself with the deliberations of a Cabinet Committee (last resort)
They were reviewed by Cameron in 2010 as important forums for discussion and resolution of differences in the coalition. In 2020, Johnson chaired 7/14 cabinet committees, including ones on Brexit and Covid strategy. Fewer ministers chaired the other half dealing with implementation and operations.

Ministerial subcommittees- they report to a standing committee

Implementation task forces/ roadmap task forces- these track progress on powers that cross departmental boundaries
Cameron established a series of taskforces during coalition years

Question 70

Where does the cabinet system get their legislative proposals from for government bills?

Answer 70

Legislative proposals considered in Cabinet Committee, must receive prior approval from the Treasury and law officers. If these proposals impact upon the week of another department, minister proposing the idea should see views of that department

Question 71

What are the roles of the Cabinet Office?

Answer 71

Regulates and coordinates cabinet business. Calls meetings, prepares agenda and unites ministers of meeting. Coordinates work on issues that bridge departments, acts as a facilitator in cases of disputes. Cabinet Office took lead on Brexit and constitutional issues under Johnson. Head of civil service (Simon Case) attends cabinet meetings as its secretary.
Key unit is Cabinet Secretary

Question 72

What does the graph on number of cabinet committees, by type of body, Jan 2010 to July 2023 show?

Answer 72

-When there’s a majority government there are fewer sub-committees as Cameron used to use cabinet committees and sub committees during coalition to reduce disputes between LibDems and Conservatives (almost 30 in 2013, 15 in 2015 under only Cameron)
-2015- implementation taskforce peaked for Brexit at 30
-Johnson used cabinet committees (18 in 2022) as he took policy lead for Covid but May only used 5 throughout her time in office
-Johnson didn’t use any sub-committees

Question 73

What does the graph on membership of cabinet committees in July 2023 show?

Answer 73

-Sunak chairs 3/5 most important cabinet committees (National Security Council, National Science and Technology Council and Domestic and Economic Affairs) and chairs 6/11 of all committees
-There’s no chair or deputy for Parliamentary Business and Legislation
-Sunak delegates to deputy PM Oliver Dowden as he’s chair of 4 committees
-Jeremy Hunt (chancellor) chairs Home Affairs Committee
-Cabinet members are part of at least one committee/ sub-committee
-Senior ministers chair 5/11 Cabinet Committees
-First 11 cabinet ministers are involved with most cabinet committees
-Most cabinet members are members of the Home Affairs Committee

Question 74

What does the graph on gender balance of cabinet committees, June 2010 to July 2023 show?

Answer 74

-Highest % of women (32%) under Truss
-Lowest under Cameron at 13%)
-Also high under May at 30%
-May and Truss fulfill microcosm model requirements

Question 75

What does the graph on gender balance of cabinet committees July 2023 show?

Answer 75

-% of women highest in National Science and Technology Council at 38%
-No women in Domestic and Economics Affairs or DEA (Union) :(

Question 76

What are the cabinet’s 4 powers?

Answer 76

Registering decisions
Discussing or making decisions on major issues
Reports on current issues
Settling disputes

Question 77

What are the 2 areas of registering decisions with examples?

Answer 77

Questions that engage the collective responsibility of government because they raise major policy issues or are of critical public importance- decisions on most issues are taken in Cabinet committees, in bilateral meetings between the PM and a minister, or in correspondence between departments, if PM and minister responsible for policy in question agree, other ministers have little chance of changing it
Eg. diaries of cabinet ministers from then 1960s and 70s reveal that on issues like EEC membership and economic policy, cabinet held lengthy discussions before reaching a decision

Matters on which there is an unresolved dispute between government departments- cabinet’s ability to decide policy is constrained by infrequency of meetings, its size and detailed nature of policy, Cabinet ministers are mainly concerned with policy in their departments
Eg. since Thatcher, key decisions are often made in smaller meetings of ministers and advisers, like Blair’s ‘sofa cabinet’ for Iraq and the coalition government’s ‘quad’`

Question 78

What are the 3 areas of discussing or making decisions on major issues with examples?

Answer 78

Issues are especially important or sensitive- ministers can warn and advise but the PM ultimately decides, eg. Ken Clarke (cabinet minister under Thatcher, Cameron and Major) noted cabinet discussion declined significantly during this period (no sensitive issues under these PMs)

Major or unexpected developments require a rapid decision- ministers can warn and advise but the PM ultimately decides, eg. cabinet meetings on Brexit party proved significant under May after her authority was reduced by Conservative’s loss of majority in 2017

Government departments and ministerial committees have been unable to reach agreement- votes are rarely taken on elections as they would reveal divisions, eg. in 2018, cabinet ministers meeting as chequers agreed May’s strategy for Brexit, but days later the secretary of state foe exiting the EU (David Davis) and foreign secretary (Johnson) resigned in opposition to the plan

Question 79

What are the 3 areas of reports on current issues with examples?

Answer 79

Parliamentary business- in the Parliamentary report, the reader of the HoC and HoL outline the following week’s business which reflects the cabinet’s formal role in government bills and ministerial statements, eg. the leader of HoC is Penny Mordaunt and leader of HoL is Nicholas True

Economic and home affairs- on other issues, ministers may wish to clarify or question policy, they may offer their personal view or that of a department or a section of their policy but the cabinet is not a debate society and time for discussion is limited, eg. the Home Secretary is James Cleverly 2024 and Head of Exchequer is Jeremy Hunt

Foreign affairs- on other issues, ministers may wish to clarify or question policy, they may offer their personal view or that of a department or a section of their policy but the cabinet is not a debate society and time for discussion is limited, eg. Foreign secretary is David Cameron

Question 80

What are settling disputes in cabinet with examples?

Answer 80

If an issue cannot be settled in cabinet committee or bilateral meetings, it may be referred to cabinet- some appeals are straightforward matters of arbitration between competing departmental claims, like over spending allocations or which department will lead on legislation, cabinet judges the strength of the cases and reaches a binding decision
Eg. 1985 Westland affair, secretary of state for defence Michael Heseltine resigned because he was unhappy with Thatcher’s ruling that cabinet would not hear his appeal against a cabinet committee decision on the award of a defence contract

Question 81

What do all ministers have in common?

Answer 81

They’re members of the same party who stood on an agreed manifesto at the same general election

Question 82

What divides ministers?

Answer 82

Departmental and personal rivalries

Question 83

What is collective responsibility with examples?

Answer 83

The principle that ministers must support cabinet decisions or resign from the government.
Eg. May tried to limit debate on Brexit with decisions being made in sub-committees instead of cabinet
Johnson’s cabinet had collective responsibility over Brexit

Question 84

What are the 3 main elements of collective responsibility with examples?

Answer 84

Secrecy- Ministers must keep the details of discussions in the cabinet system secret to ensure that sensitive information does not enter the public and prevents difference of opinion from being revealed

Binding decisions- Once a decision is reached in cabinet, it becomes binding on all ministers regardless of whether they’ve opposed it or were not directly involved in decision making, those unable to accept this should resign or expect to be dismissed, big beasts’ power reduces, eg. in 2003, Robin Cook resigned as leader of HoC the day before parliament was due to vote on Blair’s invasion of Iraq without a second UN resolution, 5 cabinet ministers resigned in opposition to May’s Brexit policy including foreign secretary

Confidence vote- Government must resign if it’s defeated in a vote of confidence, eg. budget votes are seen as confidence votes, Johnson survived a vote of no confidence in 2022, in 1979 James Callaghan’s Labour government lost a vote of confidence after its bill on Scottish devolution was defeated in HoC

Question 85

Why have many ministers resigned recently with examples?

Answer 85

Opposed policy on Brexit
Eg. 2018 Boris Johnson foreign secretary and Dominic Raab secretary of state for exiting the EU
2019 Andrea Leadsom leader of HoC and Amber Rudd secretary of state for work and pensions as she was against the idea of a no deal Brexit

Question 86

What is the ‘elastic band theory of Prime Ministerial Power’ with examples?

Answer 86

A PM such as Thatcher may stretch her authority over the cabinet but eventually the cabinet may reassert its authority, the elastic band swings back and the PM is gone, Thatcher was removed by her own party
Also applies to Johnson (Chris Pincher), May (Brexit), Blair (Iraq)

Question 87

What are the 3 exceptions to collective responsibility with examples?

Answer 87

Temporary suspension during referendums- PMs suspend collective responsibility temporarily to prevent ministerial resignations, eg. Harold Wilson allowed ministers to campaign for either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ vote during the 1975 EEC referendum (gov was yes) so no divided government, Conservative and LibDem ministers could campaign on opposite sides in 2011 AV referendum, 2016 EU referendum Cameron led MPs campaign to leave EU, 5 cabinet ministers campaigned to leave EU but denied access to civil service resources to support leave and had to support government on all other issues

Coalition- 2010 coalition agreement had 4 issues on which LibDem ministers would not be bound by collective responsibility, they were permitted to abstain on the construction of new nuclear power stations, tax allowances for married couples, and higher education funding, and to make the case against renewal of the Trident nuclear deterrent, eg. LibDems responded to abandonment of legislation on HoL reform by withdrawing support for constituency boundary changes with their ministers voting against the change in 2013, most LibDem ministers voted in favour of a 2014 private members’ bill proposing exceptions to government’s ‘bedroom tax’, Conservatives oppose, Conservative ministers voted for a private members’ bill on an EU referendum that LibDems said no to

Free votes- May be granted to ministers as well as backbench MPs on issues of conscience like assisted dying (eg. 2015) or abortion, eg. 2015 vote on abortion on the grounds of the sex of the unborn child, 2019 vote on abortion rights in NI, Cameron allowed a free vote on the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill in 2013, two cabinet ministers voted against this bill

Question 88

What are the 3 strains on collective responsibility with examples?

Answer 88

Leaks- Disgruntled ministers may leak information on cabinet discussions to the media, may want dissatisfaction about policy or government to be aired without going public with criticism, eg. defence secretary Gavin Williamson sacked in 2014 after leaking information presented to National Security Council, cabinet discussions have been revealed in books written by former ministers like Ed Balls and Nick Clegg

Dissent and non-resignation- Cabinet ministers who oppose important aspects of government policy have survived in office even when their concerns have been made public, eg. one-nation Conservatives in Thatcher’s first cabinet scarcely concealed their opposition to her economic policy but none resigned and Thatcher dismissed them only when her position was secure, LibDem ministers were openly critical of some coalition policies but only 1 junior minister (Norman Baker) resigned over policy differences, Suella Braverman was open about ‘hate marches’

Prime-ministerial dominance- Some ministers who served under Thatcher and Blair claimed that the PM had undermined collective responsibility by ignoring the cabinet, eg. Michael Heseltine, Nigel Lawson and Sir Geoffrey Howe all cited Thatcher’s contempt for collective responsibility when resigning, Mo Mowdam and Clarke Short complained that Blair didn’t consult cabinet sufficiently, Sajid Javid resigned as chancellor rather than accepting Johnson’s demand that he dismiss his special advisers and Caroline Ansell resigned over no free school meals

Question 89

Which PMs had ministers resign over Brexit?

Answer 89

May- 5 cabinet ministers and 11 junior ministers resigned as they opposed her Brexit policy which is a postwar record rate and number of ministerial resignations: July 2018 Chequers Agreement (David Davis and Johnson out), the draft Withdrawal Agreement in Nov 2018 had Dominic Raab and Esther Mckey out, proposed legislation on Brexit in May 2019 had Andrea Leadsom out

Johnson- 4 cabinet ministers and 2 junior ministers announced departure in the days before he took office (couldn’t support his Brexit policy) then 2 ministerial resignations (secretary of state for work and pensions Amber Rudd and his brother Jo Johnson who attended cabinet without being a full member)

Question 90

Why do Brexit resignations show that collective responsibility has broken down?

Answer 90

May was unable to enforce her policy due to the resignations. Ministers expressed their concerns over the government’s Brexit policy in public and confidential documents were leaked. Ministers also defied whips. In March 2019, 4 cabinet ministers and 7 junior ministers defied the whip and abstained on a vote on preventing the UK leaving the EU without a deal. 8 cabinet ministers and 4 junior ministers abstained on a motion to extend Article 50 in April. None resigned or were dismissed. Ministers had not opposed or supported government policy and a weak PM couldn’t enforce discipline on Brexit. No support didn’t lead to resignations.

Question 91

What is individual minsterial responsibility?

Answer 91

The principle that ministers are responsible to parliament for their personal conduct and that of their department.

Question 92

What can ministers not be held accountable for in their departments?

Answer 92

Decisions made in their department without their knowledge.
Operational matters held by officials in their department or executive agencies

Question 93

What does it mean to ‘knowingly mislead parliament’ and who was found to have done this and what happened to them?

Answer 93

The Ministerial Code states that ministers must give ‘accurate and truthful information to Parliament’ and if they don’t they’ll be expected to ‘offer their resignation’. Ministers must be as open as possible, but were culpable if they misled Parliament knowingly. Home Secretary Amber Rudd resigned in 2018 when it was revealed that she had misled the Home Affairs Select committee by stating the Home Office did not have targets for deporting illegal immigrants.

Question 94

Who is responsible for a department’s policy and who is responsible for its operations with examples?

Answer 94

Ministers are responsible for policy, but officials (civil service) are responsible for day-to-day operations. The head of the UK Border Force, Brodie Clarke, resigned in 2011 after civil servants relaxed border controls without ministerial agreement.

Question 95

What are some examples of failure of personal responsibility?

Answer 95

David Laws (under Blair) got caught fiddling with expenses so resigned (embezzled tax)
Priti Patel held unauthorised meetings with Israelis so resigned
Michael Fallon sexually assaulted people so resigned
Amber Rudd claimed she didn’t know the Windrush scandal was as big as it was but leaked e-mails said she did so resigned

Question 96

What are examples of policy failure?

Answer 96

-Resignation of Lord Carrington (foreign secretary, misjudgements before Argentina entered the Falkland Islands in 1982)
-Resignation of chancellor of exchequer James Callaghan after 1967 devaluation of sterling
-Robert Jenrick resigned as Minister of State for Immigration in 2023 due to Rwanda Bill’s failure (gov sending asylum seekers to central Africa)

Question 97

What are examples of policy failure and mistakes within departments?

Answer 97

-Head of Ofqual and senior civil servant in the Department for Education resigned in 2020 after policy of using algorithms to determine GCSE and A Level grades
-Liam Fox used donations to influence defence so less well armed defence

Question 98

What are examples of policy failure and personal misconduct?

Answer 98

Matt Hancock didn’t uphold social distancing rules by kissing his advisor

Question 99

What are examples of personal misconduct?

Answer 99

-‘cash for questions’ case led to resignations of Neil Hamilton and Tim Smith
-Priti Patel’s resignation in 2017 on misconduct during foreign visits
–2012 Andrew Mitchell (chief whip) accused of insulting a police officer outside 10 Downing Street
-2017 Michael Fallon (secretary of state for defence) faced allegations of sexual harassment
-Dominic Raab resigned as deputy PM and Justice Secretary in 2023 due to bullying
-Nadhim Zahawr (chairman of Conservatives) lied about his tax affairs in 2023
-Suella Braverman (Home Secretary from Truss’ government in 2022) sent highly sensitive information to fellow Conservative MP from personal email address so resigned
-Gavin Williamson resigned as Minister of State in 2022 due to improper language to former chief whip Wendy Morton and bullied staff

Question 100

What are examples of personal misconduct and mistakes made within departments?

Answer 100

Priti Patel went to Israel without anyone else from Foreign Office present (met PM) and lied about it

Question 101

What are examples of mistakes made within departments?

Answer 101

-Resignation of Sir Thomas Dugdale (minister of agriculture) due to Crickel Down affair where government bought 700 areas of privately owned farmland in CD to use as a bombing range before WW2 and promised to return it to its owners after war but didn’t, errors of civil servants
-Inquiries into sale of arms to Iraq (1996) and BSE (2000) uncovered mistakes in departments but ministers survived

Question 102

What is a cabinet government?

Answer 102

A system of government in which executive power is vested in a cabinet, where members exercise collective responsibility rather than a single office

Question 103

What is a prime-ministerial government?

Answer 103

A system of government in which the PM is the dominant force and is able to bypass the cabinet

Question 104

Where does the PM derive their power from?

Answer 104

The PM needs the support of their cabinet and officials to achieve their goals. Political success, public popularity and a large majority strengthens their position.

Question 105

What are the 4 characteristics of a pre-eminent PM with examples?

Answer 105

-Legal head of the government (eg. appointing ministers)
-Leadership of the government (eg. setting policy agenda)
-Prime Minister’s Office
-Setting the political agenda (through their party/ media)
Eg. Cameron, May, Brown, Truss, Sunak

Question 106

What are the 4 characteristics of a predominant PM with examples?

Answer 106

-Leadership ability and reputation
-Association with political success
-Electoral popularity
-A high standing within their party
Eg. Thatcher, Blair, Johnson

Question 107

What does presidential mean?

Answer 107

The idea that the UK PM has taken on some of the characteristics of presidents because of an emergence of a personalised form of leadership

Question 108

What are the 3 forms of presidentialisation with examples?

Answer 108

-Personal leadership- the PM is expected to be a dominant political personality who stamps his or her imprint on the government and imposes a personal vision, eg. Thatcher’s idealogy set the political agenda, Blair and Cameron modernised their parties, Thatcher and Blair were personally associated with major policy initiations, personalisation of leadership also evident in election campaigns and party organisation like televised leadership debate 2010

Public outreach- Political leaders have become public commodities, the media spotlight falls on the PM more than on any other minister, PM is expected to connect with the popular mood and claim to represent the public interest and take their message directly to the public through the popular media, eg. Johnson regularly held televised briefings during Covid pandemic, Blair’s message to public when Princess Diana died

Spatial leadership- A sense of distance has been created between the PM and their government and party, PM relies more on their own inner circle of advisers than on cabinet system, eg. Blair’s ‘sofa government’ and Cameron’s ‘quad’, they presented themselves as outsiders within their own party

Question 109

Why has the PM not become presidential?

Answer 109

-US president elections held every 4 years, PM is 5 years
-US president is head of government and state, PM has more limited power
-PM is tied to policy, President is not

Question 110

What is spatial leadership?

Answer 110

A theory that explains how UK premiers have adapted and adopted techniques used by American presidents to overcome the constitutional limitations on their power. These tactics are:
1) outsider: Blair presented himself as separate from Labour
2) Blair focused heavily on media usage, and communication tools as part of a permanent campaign
3) individual dominance: using force of personality to intervene in departmental affairs, eg. Blair’s personal involvement in health, schools, NI`

Question 111

How is spatial leadership seen in PMs?

Answer 111

Brown- tried to project his personal narrative beyond Westminster to massage his media image, cultivated ‘soft news’ networks like women’s magazines, his hairstyle was altered, and decision to bring his wife on stage at party conference was highly choreographed
Cameron- his wife was referred to as ‘Sam Cam’ in tabloid press and frequently in public eye
Johnson- 2019 GE all about him, also case for May and her attempt to increase her majority over Labour, but for Johnson he delivered a huge majority and was the hero of the hour, queues of MPs lined up in HoC chamber for a selfie with him BUT also lots of U-turns in his gov where PM is central and relentless focus of media so it can backfire, electoral liability

Question 112

How can Blair be seen as presidential?

Answer 112

-Alastair Campbell and Powell were his experts
-didn’t believe cabinet was the place to make decisions
-sofa government
-had greater control over civil servants
-brought various special advisers into No10
-wanted radical reform for cabinet
-wanted to increase control from No10 over cabinet ministers
-wanted a department for PM but problematic because of collective responsibility

Question 113

What was the Chilcot report and how did it suggest the dangers of spatial leadership?

Answer 113

Explained how Blair withheld legal ambiguities over Iraq war from the cabinet. Brown and Clare Short (the International Development Secretary) weren’t aware of difficulties faced by gov’s lawyer Lord Goldsmith and pressure put on by Americans. Report concluded that ‘law made to fit around policy rather than the other way round’.
Shows danger of separation from rest of cabinet as hiding information from them means best decision being made (no invasion) is prevented. Also divides party and makes government look weak as not everyone knows what’s going on, no trust in PM.

Question 114

What are the theories and myths of executive power? 1

Answer 114

A presidential PM- Position of PM and President converging as Blair’s policies drove direction of gov more than Labour itself, Johnson frequently described as presidential for his concentration of power in No10, his sidelining of cabinet and Parliament, and his (failed) attempt to appoint Allegra Stratton to give White House-style daily press briefings
Substantial powers- UK PM has power as FPTP means ruling coalitions are largely avoided, hereditary head of state concentrates power on PM not monarch, uncodified constitution means PM is free to make it up as they go along and UK is a unitary, not a federal country which focuses power on PM
A constrained office- since Blair, no PM has been presidential
Qualities over resources- key PM qualities are clarity about what they want to do in office and knowing how to make the existing system work for them, like Thatcher

Question 115

What are the theories and myths of executive power? 2

Answer 115

Cabinet decline- PM’s office has taken over from cabinet as key decision-making body as powerful PMs often ignore cabinet, it’s now informed of decisions already taken and agreed, often in committees, eg. sofa government
Cabinet revival- resurgence of cabinet authority due to Blair invading Iraq, like Brown often having to discuss and agree matters with cabinet against his wishes, Cameron having to consult cabinet regularly in coalition, May having to consult cabinet on every significant occasion due to disastrous 2017 GE, Johnson consulting cabinet due to Covid and lockdowns
A PM’s department- creating a larger office for PM doesn’t help
Monarchial influence- monarch is just of symbolic importance BUT they have more favourable headlines than PM, nation looks to them for reassurance in crisis and regarded as principal representative throughout Commonwealth, not PM

Question 116

What are government ministers?

Answer 116

-Over 100 ministers in government, allocated positions in gov departments
-Main roles performed are policy leadership, representing department interests, departmental management and relations with Parliament (steer bills through Parliament, accountable for decisions, answer questions in HoL and appear before select committees)
-Senior ministers often hold rank of secretary of state, sit in the cabinet and head gov departments, below them are junior ministers who are given specific policy roles in a department

Question 117

What is the secretary of state?

Answer 117

A government minister in charge of a major government department, like health or education

Question 118

What are government departments?

Answer 118

-Staffed by civil servants so can have advantage over ministers like experience, expertise and access to information, have to provide impartial advice but can define which policies are practicable, 4 principles of impartiality, anonymity, permanence and meritocracy
-385,000 in 2016 then 468,000 in 2021 due to Brexit and Covid
-Attorney’s General Office is the department responsible for providing legal advice to government, 2 ministers are Law Officers and approve draft legislation, eg. 2016 Chilcot report
-Treasury is most powerful department, controls public spending and other departments require its approval to undertake major new financial commitments
-Departments oversee provision of public services, not responsible for much day-to-day policy delivery
-In major departments, a cabinet minister is the political head and the permanent secretary is the most senior civil servant
-Ministers employ special advisers to carry out policy advice or media liaison roles (aka spin doctors), they’re temporary civil servants and exempted from political neutrality requirement, in 2021, 113 SpAds- 49 of them worked for PM like Dominic Cummings under Johnson
-Functions of gov departments are providing policy advice to ministers, managing government spending, fostering relationships with interested parties like pressure groups and policy implementation

Question 119

What are spin doctors?

Answer 119

A special adviser employed to promote the image of the minister and their policy in the media

Question 119

What are special advisers?

Answer 119

A temporary political appointment made by a government minister