Pressure groups

Question 1

No they don’t strengthen democracy

Answer 1

Their activities, however, are not without drawbacks because the monitoring of th government by groups can have an impact on the at we do politics. Such groups are often self selecting and in Britain often lean toward the liberal end of the spectrum. Their causes are invariably selective. The increasing visibility of promotional groups reinforces the face that British politics is less part orientated than ever before and political activism less focussed on institutions. Politics as a result, is becoming more issue-led.

Question 2

Traditional functions of pressure groups

Answer 2

• provide a means of popular participation in national politics between elections
• means of popular participation in local politics
• source of specialist knowledge

Question 3

Why have pressure groups increased in importance

Answer 3

Membership of political parties has fallen, given the important roles parties play in the system, the decline in membership is even more important

A perception that political parties no longer represent the interests of their members

New social movements have caused more people to join pressure groups

Question 4

Are some pressure groups more equal than others?

Answer 4

Pluralists argue that society consists of many groups reprsenting difference sections of the population that all have equal opportunity to shape government policy preferences.

Question 5

What did Robert Dahl say?

Answer 5

In 1971 he said that democracy could not exist without the continuing responsiveness of the government to the preferences of its citizens considered as political equals

Question 6

What is pluralism

Answer 6

The ability for all groups to have equal potential to reach decision makers with the ability to influence policy determined largely by the sized of their membership, by how far the leadership of pressure group consults members and by the quality of the argument they p forward

Question 7

How is power dispersed?

Answer 7

While resources are not distributed equally between groups, those that are better off in some resources are invariably worse off in other areas. This often means that one ‘influence resource’ is effective in some issue areas or in some specific decisions, it is by no means as effective in all areas. Ex-BMA have membership but we’re in negotiations o er junior doctor issue for months. Also in the case of the U.K. Political system, this would account to the influence of business interests on issues such as the management of the economy and the support pledged by Gordon Brown in 2000

Question 8

Another point for are they all equal

Answer 8

,0The pre-eminence of one group is also prevented by the tendency for opponents of successful groups to gather support into the form of a rival pressure group. This provides a counterbalance to previously dominating groups and establishes an approximate balance of power between them. The development of trade unions in the 80s and their role in the corporatist state in pre-Thatcherite Britain

Question 9

Another point for are they equal

Answer 9

Few groups are entirely lacking in influence resources. Even the smallest impoverished campaign organisations have the ability to exert some influence, if they are able to exploit what dew resources, they have the power to deny their votes and the votes of their supporters to political parties to ignore their position

Question 10

Are pressure groups instruments of people power?

Answer 10

In theory, groups provide a means for individuals to express their demands more effectively than they could do on their own. The World Wildlife Fund, has over 200,000 members, has treated impact on government about wildlife crime or animals threshed ended with extinctionthan one person who persistently emails the relevant government department about the very same issue

Question 11

Do pressure groups strengthen democracy?

Answer 11

Associational and promotional groups/ cause groups have an important representational function because they communicate opinion to politicians and policy makers. Representative democracy canon itself ensure e state acts in the interest of society. The public may elect and replace politicians. But interest and pressure groups,making side public opinion and the media, help to duck and balance Government so help the democratic process

Question 12

M in MEALFOP

Answer 12

Membership: the extent of a group’s membership, its density (does it speak for most people in the industry/ profession?), and more especially the size of its activist base.

Question 13

E in MEALFOP

Answer 13

Esteem: professional groups generally have a high social status. Doctors are less criticised than unions. NACRO (representing ex-offenders) and Release (representing drug addicts) lack strong public appeal.)

Question 14

A in MEALFOP

Answer 14

The ability to make a strategic alliance: some groups supplement their own resources by forming alliances. For example, in opposing identity cards, libertarian campaigners cooperated with activists from groups representing asylum seekers and immigrants who feared that they would be victims of endless requests to prove they had a right to be in Britain.

Question 15

L in MEALFOP

Answer 15

Leadership and staffing: successful organisations tend to be those that are well led, with charismatic, creative and energetic leaders being supported by an efficient staff.

Question 16

F in MEALFOP

Answer 16

Funding: money helps groups organise internally and exercise influence externally. It enables expenditure on quality leadership, the creation of a favourable image and generous office/ staffing provision.

Question 17

O in MEALFOP

Answer 17

Organisation: protective groups can afford generous staffing and office space. Promotional groups, including some of the most vulnerable sections of society, cannot. But they can be well-run by a small, highly centralised and professional command structure. The RSPB is very highly organised.

Question 18

P in MEALFOP

Answer 18

Public support: groups whose campaigns are in tune with popular mood have a considerable advantage. Governments are sensitive to the views of the electorate particularly near election time.

Question 19

International Access Points

Answer 19

• United Nations
• UN related bodies e.g. World Bank
• G8
• Overseas governments.

Question 20

UK Access Points

Answer 20

• Executive (Whitehall)
• Parliament (both chambers) (Westminster)
• Courts
• Devolved machinery
• Local authorities

Question 21

Other Access Points

Answer 21

• Public
• Other Pressure Groups
• Private Companies
• Public corporations
• Media

Question 22

European Access Points

Answer 22

• Council of ministers
• Commission
• Parliament
• Court of Justice

Question 23

Why does Government consult widely?

Answer 23

Governments make a practice of consulting widely. They do this because:

1) Can ascertain views of members – valuable in helping ministers make policy and monitoring success of previous measures.
2) Get technical information and advice.
3) Obtain assistance in carrying out policy. E.g. Farmers helped when there was an outbreak of BSE.
4) Ministers can use contacts as a means of communicating information.

Question 24

Why do Pressure Groups target the the executive

Answer 24

• In almost all countries pressure groups target the executive branch. As David Simpson argues: ‘Pressure Groups concentrate their activities where the power lies. In the British system it lies in the executive.’
• Most often, the lobbyists (who are interested in the small print of policy) have contact with senior figures.
• It is the Higher Civil Service which offers advice to the Sec of State so it is very worthwhile to contact senior civil servants.

Question 25

Examples of executive influence?

Answer 25

• Contact with the executive can be arranged via formal and informal links, e.g. government-established committees, the circulation of government documents.
• For example, the NFU and the Department of Farming and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) are in frequent contact.
• Big business is very important to government because they play a pivotal role in the economy.
• In the 1960s/70s the era of tripartism/ corporatism was very fashionable – representatives of government would work with business organisations and trade unions in the management of the economy. Such corporatism has gone out of fashion in the last two decades.
• The Treasury does not consult in the run-up to the Budget because of need for secrecy on sensitive information. It does however receive submissions from interested parties on what they would like to see in the annual statement.

Duncan Watts: ‘Consultation is not the same as influence.’

• If their standing with the public diminishes, then their views may seem less important.
• In the mid 1980s the Lord’s Day Observance Society still help a hold over government particularly in discussion of the issue of the Sunday trading laws. By the mid 1990s the influence was dwindling as church attendances continued to decrease and society became more liberal.
• Whereas the Thatcher gov was unable to pass its Shops Bill in 1986, the Major administration was able to pass a bill allowing retailers to open for 6 hrs on a Saturday.

Question 26

Why do parties target the legislature

Answer 26

• In Britain, there is a strong system of party discipline, so that MPs are likely to be less responsive to group persuasion.
• Powerful protective groups prefer contact with the executive.
• Once elected, MPs can expect to receive contacts and be invited to attend social gatherings.
• In one study of 253 organised interests, 75% of them claimed to be in regular or frequent contact with one or more MP and more than half maintained contact with the H of L.

Question 27

Information about democratic processes of pressure groups

Answer 27

• Some pressure groups such as Greenpeace are highly centralised.
• In many cases pressure group officers are appointed rather than elected by the group’s members. This means that those leading pressure groups are often not directly accountable to members.
• Many group decisions are not taken by members, but rather by a central unelected board or committee.
• Neil McNaughton suggests that groups such as the BMA and the AA are particularly poor at consulting their members over questions of policy and direction. Many groups are therefore elitist rather than pluralist.
• Some sectional groups, for example trade unions, have been forced to become more internally democratic as a result of legislation passed in the 1980s (e.g. requirement to hold ballots before national strike action). The current Conservative government are attempting to change legislation to make it even harder for trade uions to organise strikes without majority agreement.
• Many cause groups start as a small group of committed individuals and control often remains with these individuals even as the membership expands.

Question 28

Reasons why pressure groups target the legislature// pressure groups prefer the executive, legislature of lower status

Answer 28

1) Contact with parliamentarians has become easier due to better technology (emails etc).
2) The growth and development of the select committee system since the 1980s has created new targets for influence. The increasing importance attached to pre-legislative scrutiny by the House serves to make the input of groups even more worthwhile. It is especially beneficial for pressure groups to make links with committee staff who could possibly be with the committee for a long time. Select committees often investigate issues, and this can be a useful forum for pressure groups as they can be required to give evidence at a hearing, therefore publicising their cause. The problem with select committees however is that the Government does not have to listen to them and their primary function is more to scrutinise the government than to suggest legislation.
3) The attitudes of governments have changed. The Thatcher and Major administrations were less receptive to groups and encouraged lobbyists to turn to MPs

Question 29

How do pressure groups target the executive?

Answer 29

• Initiate legislation on behalf of the group: That is introducing a Private Member’s Bill. However, the House of Commons spends less than 5% of its time considering such legislation, and the time itself is usually concentrated in the least attractive part of the parliamentary week (Friday’s). PMB’s do have significance for pressure groups however. They offer the opportunity to promote change and publicise a cause. In the 1960s PMB’s brought about changes to legislation concerning capital punishment for example. But still, opportunities here are limited.

Question 30

Study of Parliament group found what?

Answer 30

70% of group representatives interviewed claimed to have had contact with the Hof L, 59% regular or frequent contact.

Question 31

What did Baggott point out?

Answer 31

peers are more independent and more free from the party whips (party appointed MPs who try to ensure members of their party vote in accordance with leadership wishes).

Question 32

Example of lobbying in HoL

Answer 32

The Countryside Alliance made great use of peers in its campaign against the abolition of fox hunting

Question 33

Lobbying of Local government

Answer 33

Proliferation of local action, NIMBY-type groups (not-in-my-back-yard) has made grass-roots decision-makers an obvious target for group activists.
Camdem 2014 residents were successful in campaigns to stop HS2 in their area

Question 34

Legal route?

Answer 34

Most well known cases were decided in European Union’s Court of Justice. Issues such as equal pay and abolition of corporal punishment in schools.

Method has become increasingly popular in recent years – even if a legal challenge fails it can be useful as a means of politicising an issue and generating publicity.

Greenpeace has been particularly active in the courts, e.g. brought its own case to try and slow down oil exploration west of Shetland.

Question 35

Lobbying of Political parties

Answer 35

Most groups adopt a neutral attitude towards the political parties. The tendency is to rely less on party connections and more on consultation with government, whichever party is in office.

There are exceptions e.g. Labour with the unions – but very very rarely can a group count on the support of the party with whose outlook it is broadly aligned.

Question 36

According to which law does European law take precedence over UK law

Answer 36

Under the terms of the European Communities Act (1972) European law takes precedence over British law where the two are in conflict.

Question 37

What happened prior to the SEA?

Answer 37

Prior to the passage in 1986 of the Single European Act (SEA) most European lobbying was conducted through national governments.

Question 38

What did the Maastricht treaty do?

Answer 38

The Maastricht treaty of 1991 expanded further the competences and responsibilities of European institutions into areas such as public health and consumer protection

Question 39

What happened between 1970 and 1990

Answer 39

, between 1970 and 1990 the number of groups who lobbied the EU increased five-fold.

Question 40

Why do pressure groups lobby Europe?

Answer 40

• There is an increasing recognition that EU institutions have developed increasing influence over domestic policies – ‘Europeanisation’.
• Some Europe institutions are more open and accessible to pressure groups and are more receptive to their views.
• Certain pressure groups which were marginalised by the conservative government in the 1980s and early 1990s realised that the EU offers the possibility of overriding some of the policies of the British Government.
• European Institutions now have more influence over domestic policy decisions than was previously the case.

Question 41

How can Pressure groups use Europe?

Answer 41

1. Lobbying the UK’s central government (national strategy): Pressure groups seek to persuade a minister of their cause in the hope that this will influence the minister’s negotiations with the Council of Ministers (the EU’s ultimate decision-making body). This strategy is most readily available to those groups who already enjoy insider status in the UK. For example the NFU regularly lobbies the British Government to put pressure on the Council of Ministers over such matters as the Common Agricultural Policy.
2. Setting up offices in Brussels: Having an office in Brussels enables groups to maintain regular contact with the European Commission. Maintaining a permanent office in Brussels is only normally available to well organised pressure groups with sufficient resources.
3. Joining a euro-group: Trans national Euro-groups are made up of similar pressure groups from other member states. The number of such groups has grown significantly, from about 430 in 1980 to over 700 in 2003. The best organised euro-groups are those concerned with representing the interests of big business, in particular the Union of Industries in the European Community (UNICE). A problem is often that euro-groups lack resources such as staffing.
4. The European Court of Justice (ECJ): This court is the body responsible for ensuring that EU laws and decisions are implemented.

Question 42

What are the laws of lobbying in EU?

Answer 42

1. Discover where the power lies and target it: Although the Council of Ministers is the ultimate decision making body, much of the power lies with the Commission, the body that draws up policy proposals and is responsible for policy implementation.
2. Be willing to compromise: Since there are so many different interests at stake it is rare for any single party to achieve its goals completely.
3. Intervene as early as possible: The further along the road a policy has travelled the less chance groups have to change it. Approximately 80% of initial proposals remain in the final policy.
4. Be professional: The EU values well-presented, highly specialised information.

Question 43

Advantages of lobbying the EU

Answer 43

 EU responsibility and competence has grown.
 In areas such as the environment interest groups have had much more influence through the EU than national governments.
 Power at the EU is much less concentrated, so there are more access points. It has been referred to as having a ‘multi-level architecture’, meaning there are lots of opportunities to influence legislative outcome.
 The EU makes a virtue of its openness and transparency.

Question 44

Disadvantages of lobbying the EU

Answer 44

× A group would need a degree of coordination, access and funds.
× They would need to be able to use a wide range of methods.
× Decision-making is unpredictable.
× They would need to maintain an effective presence in Brussels.

Question 45

Lobbying devolved powers?

Answer 45

Devolved Government was introduced by the Labour Party in 1999. However, prior to this there were already Scottish groups with their own organisation, finance and membership, for example the Scotch Whisky association.

Devolution has on the whole created a growth in the number of groups who lobby at this level. However, it must be remembered that devolved governments do not have decision-making powers over all policy areas. For example, the Scotch Whisky Association, whilst a solely-based Scottish group, still needs to focus on lobbying Westminster as its policy concerns of alcohol duty for example, come under the remit and responsibility of Westminster.

Question 46

Types of public campaigns

Answer 46

1) Background campaigns: intended to create a favourable impression for a cause over time. E.g. Aims for Freedom and Enterprise ( a long-time crusading organisation against nationalisation and in favour of privatisation,) keeps up a steady flow of information and becomes more prominent at election time.
2) Fire brigade campaigns: aim to quickly rally support and get MPs and ministers to take notice. E.g. Snowdrop campaigns 1996 – 7. (The Snowdrop Campaign was founded after the Dunblane Massacre in March 1996 to call for a total ban on the private ownership and use of handguns in the United Kingdom. Founded by friends of the bereaved families and so called because March is snowdrop time in Scotland, it gained over 705,000 signatures to a petition within 6 weeks).

Question 47

The media lolz

Answer 47

Whereas the public level seemed to be the least influential a few years ago, in the last couple of decades it has become more common. The development of modern mailshots, advertising and marketing techniques has made them more appealing. TV also offers opportunity for publicity.

Environmental groups have consciously sought to mobilise support through the use of television images and discussions. Fathers4Justics have also gained publicity from using TV.

Question 48

‘least noise equals most success’ is this still true?

Answer 48

In the early studies of pressure group activity, the view was often expressed that ‘least noise equals most success’. The groups that were really influential were the large protective groups that operated behind the scenes. Groups like the NFU only decided to go public if they were becoming frustrated with their conversations inside government. For any significant group, it was not really worth operating at the public level if access to departmental officials was available.

Question 49

What happened after the 1980s to behind the door lobbyign?

Answer 49

Since the 1980s this has no longer been the case. Much more attention has been paid by pressure group activists to mobilising public support. The NFU also belongs to the more activist Farmers for Action, so that they can get the advantages of applying insider and outsider pressure.

Question 50

why do pressure gorups not campaign

Answer 50

Campaigns are often expensive, time-consuming to organise and unpredictable in their outcome. However, the development of modern mailshots, advertising and marketing techniques has made them more appealing. Environmental groups and world poverty groups have grown rapidly since the 1990s, and their leaders have consciously sought to mobilise support through the use of the media

Question 51

Use of the media by pressure groups

Answer 51

Over recent decades, the media have become an increasingly acknowledged part of group activity in all democracies. Even insider groups have begun to make more use of the media. Well-resourced bodies such as the BMA may be able to fund posters and press advertising. For a lot of groups however this would be an enormous drain on finances. They have to think of cheaper ways in which to utilise the press.

Question 52

Save the Valley campaign

Answer 52

1) The Save the Valley Campaign:
In the 1980s the media were used by campaigners seeking to save the Valley as the football ground of Charlton Athletic FC. Many supporters disliked the idea of having to share a football ground with Crystal Palace due to Charlton no longer owning their own ground. In 1987 the directors decided to return to their home ground and repurchased the Valley with a view to rebuilding their ground there.

Canvassers used door-stepping and leaflets to publicise the cause. They needed to persuade the Labour controlled council to back their return, and decided to get the media on board. The local paper was fully behind the venture and an extensive poster campaign was undertaken. They set up their own political party (The Valley Party) to campaign at the local elections, and this was able to attract national coverage.

Question 53

Brent spar?

Answer 53

2) Brent Spar:
In 1995 Shell gained permission from the government to dump the 14,500 ton Brent Spar oil platform in the North Atlantic. Greenpeace opposed the decision and at the time was also looking for a symbol that could be used to focus attention on the planned European environmental summit. Greenpeace activists boarded the Spar and specialised climbers made it secure. They flew in a satellite uplink, turning the Spar into a floating television station that could broadcast live to European news programmes.

Greenpeace also flew in reporters to film Shell’s attempts to remove activists from the platform, organised parallel boycotts and protests at Shell petrol stations in Germany and Holland, and issued press releases providing data on the residues inside the Spar.

This approach effectively won the propaganda war, and Shell shelved its plans to dump the platform.

Question 54

Types of direct action?

Answer 54

Different forms of direct action include:
•	Demonstrations
•	Sit-ins
•	Strikes
•	Interrupting televised events
•	Non payment of taxes
•	Invasion of buildings

Question 55

What does direct action mean?

Answer 55

Doing for yourself what the government has refused to do.”
For example, homeless people might find a home by living in unoccupied property.
More recently, the term has been used to allude to any attempt to coerce those in authority into changing their viewpoints.
Even more recently it has been described as “action taken outside the constitutional and legal framework.”
It does not have to be violent, and if violence is used it may be against property rather than against a person.

Question 56

Why is becoming more popular?

Answer 56

1. The growing recognition that protest is an effective means of getting concerns placed on the national agenda.
2. In the Conservative years (1979 – 1997) there were often limited opportunities for consultation. Previously powerful groups like trade unions were finding themselves distanced.
3. Developing disillusion on the part of many campaigners with the performance of the Labour government. People have been unhappy that Labour has failed to carry out many of its policies and have not met expectations.
4. The ease of organising protest via the world wide web, email and mobile phones.
5. Journalists realise the benefits of getting a story which ‘touches the heart’.
6. There has been a general decline of deference towards the political elite.

Question 57

example of direct action

Answer 57

Huntingdon Life Sciences is a company based in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire. One example that prompted this legislation was the case of Gladys Hammond, the mother-in-law of a guinea pig breeder on a farm in Staffordshire, whose grave was desecrated and her body removed allegedly by animal rights activists complaining about the work of the farm.

Question 58

Why is the effectivity of a pressure group difficult to gauge

Answer 58

The effectiveness of pressure group activity is hard to gauge. This is because:
• Highly successful and privileged insider groups are unlikely to publicise the extent of their influence, for fear of alienating the government and losing their status.
• High-profile protests and stunts might appear impressive, but succeed only rarely in changing policy. (Even during the fuel protests in 2000, the government chose to speak to the Road Hauliers’ Association, rather than
those organising the protest.)

Question 59

examples of lobbying through public support

Answer 59

After coming under intense pressure from groups such as GM Free Cymru and the Farmers’ Union of Wales, Welsh Environment Minister Carwyn Jones defied the UK government by announcing that Welsh farmers would be encouraged to declare themselves GM-free.

Question 60

examples of lobying through public support

Answer 60

Television chef Jamie Oliver used a channel 4 programme and collected 271,677 signatures for a petition delivered to Downing Street. The DfES responded in May 2006 by reducing the amount of junk food in school dinners and investing more money in improving the diet of school children.

Question 61

Do pressure groups give people power

Answer 61

Defenders of pressure group activity also state that groups increase access to the political system, ensuring hat previously ignore issues are placed on the political agenda. Although the the campaign achieved very little legislative change, FATHERS4J argued that it’s pros,me of high profile stunts ensure media coverage of the issue of family increased by 700% and that govern the and opposition parties had to engage with the issue that had not been on the agend before he groups formation in 2002. This also led to a film being created by Miramax Pictures

Question 62

Why are they good?

Answer 62

Groups implement a ‘quality control’ mechanism on how policies are implemented by government. After several groups including action aid, Oxfam and Christian Aid, criticised the debt relief package agreed at the G8 summit in 2005, Gordon Brown was forced to admit that not all money pledged was entirely ‘new’ much of it had already been pledged by individual government

Question 63

Obstacles to people power

Answer 63

Pressure groups tend to serve the interests of those members in society who are already over-respresented I.e. Middle class adults. With greater emphasis on single issue politics and a decline in collectivity forms of participation, it appears that the professional class are gaining the most from pressure group activity, in terms of skills developed and political benefits accrued.

Question 64

What did Li et al. (2002) say

Answer 64

That the benefits of social capital were less likely to be felt by the lowest social groups

Question 65

What are cheque book groups

Answer 65

Cheque book groups challenge the democratic credentials of group activity. These groups are run in hierarchal organisations, with professional staff, mee searchers and campaigners. The role of membership is simply to add legitimacy to the groups goals and to bankroll the groups activities through membership fees and donations. In fact some of these groups don’t even need membership as they rely on patronage.

Question 66

What did Professor Marquand say?

Answer 66

‘Greenpeace is more like a kind of company trading in the market place, and you don’t join Greenpeace, you send it money and then you watch and see what it does and then you withdraw money if it doesn’t do what you like.’

Question 67

Is the political culture conducive to pressure groups?

Answer 67

Yas,

Government allows certain groups to gain direct access to minister and civil servants (I.e. Achieve insider status)

Government directly fund a number of groups

The labour Government introduced consultation measures to increase access for pressure groups

Governments allow groups to be represented on quangos. Jonathan Porritt, former director of Friends of the Earyh and founder of sustainable development group Forum for the Future was appointed head of sustainable development commission by Tony Blair in 2000

Question 68

Is political culture conducive to pressure groups, nah

Answer 68

Pressure groups suffer if they are seen to be acting in a manner deemed out of step with the established culture of policy making. In October 2006, the Charity Commission (the non-ministerial government department that regulates registered charities) reprimanded Kurt Hoffman (director of the charity Shell foundation) and James Smith (Chairman of Shell UK) for lobbying Hillary Benn the Secretary of State for international development