Pressure Groups

Question 1

Function of pressure groups

Answer 1

Pressure groups differ from political parties in that they do not usually enter their own candidates at elections, and do not seek to exercise power themselves. Rather they seek to influence the government (or another authority) to adopt their ideas, or not to pursue a policy of which they disapprove.

Question 2

Three main types of pressure groups and examples

Answer 2

• Sectional groups (or interest groups) seek to promote the interests of an occupation or another group in society. For example, trade unions represent their members in negotiations with employers over wages and working conditions. Membership of a sectional group is usually restricted to people who meet specific requirements, such as professional qualifications in a particular field. For example, the Law Society is open to solicitors in England and Wales.

•Cause groups (or promotional groups) are focused on achieving a particular goal or drawing attention to an issue or group of related issues. Membership is usually open to anyone who sympathises with their aims. For example, Greenpeace promotes awareness of environmental concerns and tries to influence the government to adopt ‘green’ causes. A special category of cause group is one that promotes the interests of a group in society - usually one that cannot stand up for itself. Members do not belong to the social group for which they campaign. For example, most members of the housing charity Shelter are not themselves homeless.

•Social movements are similar to cause groups but are more loosely structured. Some participants may also belong to more traditional pressure groups, while others are simply moved to take part in a specific protest. Social movements are usually politically radical and seek to achieve a single objective. For example, the ‘Camps for Climate Action’ were created for short periods in 2007-10 to protest against the expansion of Heathrow airport, coal-fired power stations in Yorkshire and other environmental targets.

Question 3

Two types of groups regarding relationship to government and examples

Answer 3

• Insider groups rely on contacts with ministers and civil servants to get their way. Some, like the National Union of Farmers, have close links with the relevant government department (in this case, DEFRA). Insider groups tend to have objectives that are broadly in line with the views of the government, increasing their leverage. Insider groups are also sub-divided into low- and high-profile groups. Low-profile groups, such as the Howard League for prison reform, rely on discreet behind the scenes contacts rather than seeking publicity. High-profile groups, such as the Confederation of British Industry (CBI), supplement their lobbying with use of the media to make their case.
• Outsider groups are not consulted by the government. Their objectives may be so far outside the political mainstream (for example, animal rights protestors who try to intimidate animal testing laboratories into ceasing their work) that the government is unlikely to enter into dialogue with them. Alternatively, an outsider group may wish to preserve its independence and reputation for ideological purity by keeping government at a distance. For example, the ‘Occupy’ movement, which organised sit-ins in late 2011, sees government as closely aligned to the global capitalist movement against which they are protesting.

Question 4

What happened to trade unions under Thatcher?

Answer 4

Some groups move from insider to outsider status (and vice-versa) according to changing political circumstances. In the post-war era, trade unions enjoyed privileged access to influence, especially when Labour governments were in power, but with the election of the Thatcher government in 1979, union leaders were deliberately excluded from the corridors of power.

Question 5

What do PG methods depend on?

Answer 5

A pressure group’s choice of methods will be determined largely by the resources available and by its status as an insider or outsider group.

Question 6

Typical insider group methods and examples

Answer 6

Insider groups tend to negotiate quietly behind the scenes, using their private contacts in Whitehall. They may even be given the opportunity to offer their views on draft legislation. Organisations such as the National Farmers Union are able to offer the government the benefit of their specialised knowledge in return for influence over policy.
Pressure groups may also lobby MPs, briefing them on issues of concern or giving evidence to committees. Lawyers acting for the human rights group, Liberty, have done this in order to put their views across on counter-terrorism policies that affect people’s civil liberties.

Question 7

Typical outsider group methods

Answer 7

Outsider groups typically resort to less discreet methods to draw attention to their concerns. Lacking contacts within government, they may try to exercise influence through email campaigns and petitions, or staging demonstrations and publicity stunts. Members of the pressure group Black Lives Matter UK, for example, obstructed flights at London City Airport in September 2016 to draw attention to their claim that ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected by pollution.

Question 8

Example of non-peaceful direct action

Answer 8

Direct action is not always peaceful. Some of those who took part in the 2010 student demonstrations against increased university tuition fees were prosecuted for disorderly conduct.

Question 9

Example of legal challenge method

Answer 9

Other pressure groups, usually those that are well funded, may initiate legal challenges against policies to which they are opposed. The Countryside Alliance took its case against the banning of fox hunting (in vain) to the High Court in 2004.

Question 10

Combination of insider and outsider methods and example

Answer 10

Some groups may use a combination of ‘insider’ and ‘outsider’ methods. Much depends on the nature of the issue and the degree to which the government is willing to respond. The British Medical Association (BMA) usually enjoys insider status but, faced with the Conservative government’s determination to impose a new contract on junior doctors, it indicated its support for strike action in the autumn of 2016 - a classic outsider group tactic. It later called off support for more extended strikes in response to concerns about patient safety.

Question 11

What constitutes success for some groups and how can this be assessed?

Answer 11

Success for some groups may consist of winning publicity for an issue rather than actually changing government policy. It is particularly hard to gauge the success of insider groups, as they do not usually publicise their achievements to avoid offending their government contacts.

Question 12

Example of success being influenced by wider context

Answer 12

The success of different pressure groups can vary considerably as a consequence of the wider context. Much depends on the climate of public opinion and the willingness of the government to make concessions. Access to effective methods of communication is another factor that may promote success. An example is the dramatic sequence of events that followed a period of rising petrol prices in September 2000.
The UK economy almost ground to a halt when road hauliers and farmers spearheaded a movement to blockade oil refineries, in a bid to get the government to reduce the tax on fuel.
These activists had considerable leverage and made use of mobile phones to assemble their supporters rapidly, with little warning. They also enjoyed widespread public approval. They secured a limited success by catching the Blair government unprepared - they gained a freeze rather than a cut in the duty - but two later attempts to replicate this mass protest, when the cost of fuel began to rise again, failed to attract significant support.

Question 13

Factors affecting PG success

Answer 13

Resources/wealth
Tactics and leadership
Public support
Government attutudes
Status
Membership size
Expertise
Government position

Question 14

How do resources affect PG success?
Example

Answer 14

A large membership who pay subscriptions means that a group is likely to have the financial resources to run offices, pay permanent staff and organise publicity. For example, the RSPCA employs about 1600 people, supported by thousands of volunteers, and can afford to take out full-page advertisements in national newspapers. The size of a pressure group’s membership can also be important in persuading government that it reflects a significant section of public opinion. However, this is not always the case. The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament had an estimated 110,000 members in the mid-1980s but the Thatcher government could afford to ignore its large and well-orchestrated demonstrations, because it could rely on the passive support of the majority of the population.

Question 15

How do leadership and tactics affect success? Examples

Answer 15

Experienced, capable leadership is vital to success. For example, the RSPCA played a key role in securing the ban on hunting with dogs in 2004 by collaborating with two similar groups, the League against Cruel Sports and the International Fund for Animal Welfare, so that they were not competing with each other. Another key to success is knowing which access points’ in the UK political system to target - the points at which a group can apply pressure. The European Union can also have an important role, such as developing and policing environmental standards. Friends of the Earth ran a long and ultimately successful campaign to compel the UK government to clean up beaches, as required by the EU.

Question 16

How does public support affect success? Examples

Answer 16

Pressure groups whose agenda is in step with public opinion are usually more successful than those whose objectives fail to engage it, or whose methods alienate potential sympathisers. The Snowdrop campaign to ban the use of handguns was successful largely because of public reaction to the 1996 Dunblane primary school massacre, when a gunman killed 16 children and their teacher. Favourable media coverage can play an important role in winning support, as can the involvement of a well-known personality. TV celebrity Joanna Lumley’s support for retired Gurkha soldiers was important in overturning a government ban on their right to live in the UK.

Question 17

How do government attitudes affect success? Examples

Answer 17

Insider contacts with government ministers and civil servants are often a key to success. The National Farmers Union’s links to DEFRA were instrumental in bringing about the 2013 badger cull, intended to protect cattle against tuberculosis, despite the wishes of animal welfare groups, who advocated vaccination of herds as a more humane approach.
Government will usually listen to the groups on which it relies for specialist knowledge of a policy area, and with whose agenda it can see some common ground.

Question 18

Case study: The BMA and the ban on smoking in cars carrying children

Answer 18

The BMA is a sectional group whose main purpose is to protect the interests of doctors. It can also function as a cause group, on issues that affect public health. Its professional status and ability to provide scientific evidence give it credibility with government. The BMA had already contributed to the introduction of a ban on smoking in enclosed public spaces from 2007. It saw the prohibition of smoking in private vehicles as the next stage in its campaign for a smoke-free UK.
When the BMA first made its case in November 2011, on the grounds that passive smoking is particularly harmful in a confined space, the government had no plans for legislation. Instead it preferred to discourage drivers from smoking by publicising the health risks. The BMA did not secure all of its objectives. Originally it argued for an outright ban on smoking in cars, regardless of whether passengers were being carried. There was insufficient support for this, so the BMA concentrated on campaigning for prohibition when children were being carried.
This attracted the support of other pressure groups such as Asthma UK. The BMA used online technology to lobby for support, providing its members with a web-based form to personalise and send to their MPs. It also made its case to members of the House of Lords. A Labour peer introduced an amendment to the 2014 Children and Families Bill, which was passed by the Lords and later accepted by the Commons. The ban came into force in October 2015.
This is a good illustration of successful pressure-group politics. The BMA showed a willingness to focus on an attainable goal. It proved patient and resourceful in mobilising support and using the parliamentary process. It was also fortunate in that public opinion and the government were willing to protect children as a vulnerable group, while they would have seen a total ban on smoking in cars as an unnecessary intrusion into people’s private lives.

Question 19

Case study: The Occupy London movement

Answer 19

In October 2011 a group of protestors occupied the square in front of St Paul’s Cathedral in London, where they erected tents until they were evicted by order of the High Court 4 months later. They were protesting about corporate greed in the City of London, which they held responsible for social inequality. Their actions were echoed by demonstrations in other cities, including in Wall Street, New York. Superficially they had some success in drawing attention to their cause, at a time when the coalition government’s spending cuts were widely condemned on the left of British politics for making life harder for the poor, while wealthy people in the financial sector seemed unscathed. A senior clergyman at St Paul’s resigned his post in solidarity with the protestors and there was some sympathy for them when the police were sent in to clear the camp. However, Occupy London failed to achieve long-lasting results. In part this was due to the strong stand taken by the authorities. Although initially they tolerated the camp, when they decided to take action they were determined not to allow the protestors to settle elsewhere in London. Fundamentally, the movement’s objectives were too broad and incoherent to give them any chance of success. They represented a generalised hostility to global capitalism and did not have practical, achievable goals. Even if the government had been prepared to negotiate with the campaigners, it is hard to see what it could have done to satisfy them Another problem for the Occupy movement was that, although social media helped to bring people together quickly, it was of little use in building a long-term organisation. Ultimately it lacked the capacity to channel its unfocused idealism into practical political activity

Question 20

Other collective organisations and group types

Answer 20

Think tanks
Lobbyists
Corporations

Question 21

Think tanks and their influence
Examples

Answer 21

Think tanks are groups of experts from different backgrounds who are brought together to investigate particular topics and to offer solutions to complicated economic, social or political issues. For example, the shift of Conservative Party thinking towards a more overtly free-market-orientated approach in the 1970s owed a great deal to Margaret Thatcher’s patronage of right wing think tanks, such as the Centre for Policy Studies and the Adam Smith Institute.

Think tanks are an alternative source of ideas to the civil service, with more time and expertise than political parties to carry out research. Some have a definite influence on government policy.
For example, the Centre for Social Justice was set up by former Conservative Party leader, lain Duncan Smith, in 2004 to look for new solutions to the problems of people living in disadvantaged communities. Duncan Smith’s appointment as Work and Pensions Secretary in the coalition government six years later enabled him to implement some of its ideas, notably the ‘universal credit’ plan that seeks to reduce the dependence of poor people on welfare benefits.

Question 22

Weaknesses of think tanks

Answer 22

However, in government it is necessary to make compromises, so the less politically practical ideas dreamed up by think tanks are often ignored. The work of think tanks is often said to lack the academic rigour expected in university circles. Typically, think tanks are staffed by young, ambitious individuals who see their time there as a springboard to a political career. For example, David Miliband went from working at the centre-left Institute for Public Policy Research to become an adviser to Tony Blair, then an MP and eventually a senior minister in the New Labour governments.

Could mention more ignoring of think tanks with this gov than under Truss due to economic circumstances and public unpopularity of such policies, politically impossible

Question 23

What are lobbyists?

Answer 23

Lobbyists are members of professional organisations who are paid by clients seeking access to government, or to MPs and members of the House of Lords. Their purpose is to gain influence on behalf of their clients, particularly when legislation that affects their clients’ interests is under consideration. This is an extension of a long-established principle that members of the public may lobby their MPs in person or by letter. The word lobby’ is derived from the hallways of the Houses of Parliament where, in the past, people would meet their MP to ask for help.

Question 24

Criticisms of lobbyists

Answer 24

There is unease about the legitimacy of some professional lobbying activities. Many people dislike the idea that influence can be bought by wealthy individuals and organisations, who can afford the lobbyists’ fees. Attention has been focused on the system recently by undercover journalists posing as lobbyists to entrap MPs with offers of financial rewards. The parliamentary code of conduct strictly bars MPs from accepting money for agreeing to represent a viewpoint.
Another concern has been that the lobbying system for many years was expected to regulate itself, with lobbyists being allowed to decide whether or not their names appeared on a public register.
In 2014 the government made it a legal requirement for anyone lobbying on behalf of a third party to register if their activities include discussing policy, legislation or government contracts with a minister or senior civil servant. This did not allay the anxieties of critics who wanted greater transparency.

Question 25

Influence of lobbyists

Answer 25

Lobbying remains big business in the UK, employing an estimated 4000 people, and a total of E2 billion is spent on it each year. How much influence lobbying really has over government is uncertain. Under David Cameron, Number 10 denied that lobbying firms changed government policy, but stated that companies frequently discuss their concerns with the Business Department or the Treasury. Governments carry out regular consultation exercises to discover what the impact of proposed legislation on relevant groups may be, and they may modify their plans in response to pressure.

Question 26

Influence of corporations

Answer 26

The role of corporations, or large business organisations, in UK government circles is a related area of concern for some pro-democracy campaigners. There has also been discussion of the so-called
‘revolving door’ process, where senior politicians and officials take well-paid jobs in the private sector after they leave government service. This brings with it the suspicion that they use their knowledge and contacts to benefit the interests of these corporations. In addition a number of business leaders have become ministers by being appointed to the House of Lords.

Question 27

Examples of PG tactics

Answer 27

• Publicity campaigns including digital campaigns
• Public demonstrations
• Publicity stunts or use of a well known spokes person
• Civil disobedience
• Go on strike
• Bring test court cases
• Give evidence at hearings
• Lobby the government (insider)

Question 28

What are PGs an example of democratically?

Answer 28

They are an example of pluralism in democracy, this is when political power is distributed across society rather than in the hands of an elite. Pressure groups help distribute power and give people a voice and access to politics.

Question 29

Reasons people join PGs

Answer 29

• Seeking representation that is not given through political parties or isn’t found elsewhere. Often importance for minority rights e.g. LGBTQ community
• Beliefs- passionate about a cause e.g. environment
Want to get involved/ participate- method of expression e.g. anti-War marches, anti-BREXIT demonstrations
• Gain (there is something in it for them) AA, National Trust
• Feel they have to- job protection by joining a union

Question 30

Why have pro-human rights pressure groups such as Liberty has limited success?

Answer 30

The public has been remarkably willing to sacrifice some liberties at a time of heightened concern over security. Governments have tended to place the safety of society above the protection of individual rights. This explains why pro-human rights pressure groups such as Liberty have had limited success in deflecting government policy.

For specific success, go to end of democracy deck

Question 31

Extinction rebellion public approval 2023

Answer 31

Although Yougov poll showed 82% of respondents considered climate change to be either very or fairly important, 68% were found to disapprove of the Just Stop Oil group.