Electoral Systems

Question 1

What is FPTP

Answer 1

An electoral system, sometimes known as a plurality system, where the candidate with the largest number of votes is elected.
Victory is achieved by having at least one more vote than other contenders.

Question 2

Purpose of elections (6)

Answer 2

Representation
Choosing the government
Holding a government to account
Participation
Influence over policy
Give mandate to political policy/decision

Question 3

How do elections ensure representation?

Answer 3

The most fundamental purpose of elections at all levels - local, regional and national - is to choose a representative to speak on behalf of a community and to provide a link between them and those who take decisions on their behalf. MPs are said to be ‘trustees’ - individuals in whom voters place their trust - who have autonomy to speak and vote as they see fit in the interests of their constituency. They are entitled to think independently in response to changing circumstances. Following the Burkean theory of representation, MPs are not mere
‘delegates’ - people sent to speak and act with a predetermined agenda to replicate the views and wishes of others.
The representative function is complicated in the Westminster system by pressure from the party leadership to support an agreed line. The promise of government posts, which are at the disposal of the prime minister, may influence ambitious MPs. But MPs who displease their constituents can be removed by the voters at the next general election.

Question 4

How do elections choose the government?

Answer 4

At a general election voters are choosing a government and granting it legitimacy. The leader of the party that wins the largest number of seats has the right to form a goverment. With ‘first past the post’ this is usually a straightforward matter
- the winning party normally commands a working majority of MPs, outnumbering all the other parties in the House of Commons put together.

Question 5

Examples of non majority governments

Answer 5

Recent elections have seen a couple of exceptions to consistent majorities. The 2010 general election left the Conservatives 20 seats short of a majority, which saw them enter into a coalition with the Liberal Democrats. Again in 2017 the Conservatives were eight seats short of a majority and so agreed a more informal arrangement with the Democratic Unionist Party.

Question 6

How many coalitions since 1945 in history?

Answer 6

7 in history
1 since 1945

Question 7

How do elections hold governments to account?

Answer 7

Usually, every 5 years a government has to face the electorate at a general election in order to renew its mandate to govern. The voters have the right to reject an unpopular government that is perceived to have failed. Individual MPs can de be held to account for their performance. Following the revelations of abuse of parliamentary expenses in 2009, a number of MPs stood down rather than face the voters at the general election the following year.

Since 2015 the Recall of MPs Act has strengthened the power of voters to remove MPs who have behaved poorly. If an MP is sentenced to a prison sentence, or is suspended from the Commons for more than 21 days, a by-election is triggered if at least 10 per cent of constituents sign a recall petition.

Question 8

Example of politicians being held to account through elections

Answer 8

Following the revelations of abuse of parliamentary expenses in 2009, a number of MPs stood down rather than face the voters at the general election the following year.

Question 9

How has the voters’ power to remove MPs been strengthened?

Answer 9

Since 2015 the Recall of MPs Act has strengthened the power of voters to remove MPs who have behaved poorly. If an MP is sentenced to a prison sentence, or is suspended from the Commons for more than 21 days, a by-election is triggered if at least 10 per cent of constituents sign a recall petition.

Question 10

How do elections help participation?

Answer 10

Voting in elections is the most obvious way ordinary people can take part in politics. Party manifestos provide information on which voters can make a judgement, although many people do not read them, or they mistrust the promises politicians make. The information provided may be misleading. For example, the 2001 Labour manifesto stated ‘we will not introduce “top-up” fees (for university tuition) and have legislated to prevent them’ There was outrage from students, and many Labour MPs, after the election when the government decided to increase fees from their previous level of £1,000 per annum.

Question 11

Example of misleading manifesto

Answer 11

For example, the 2001 Labour manifesto stated ‘we will not introduce “top-up” fees (for university tuition) and have legislated to prevent them’ There was outrage from students, and many Labour MPs, after the election when the government decided to increase fees from their previous level of £1,000 per annum.

Question 12

How do elections influence policy?

Answer 12

Voters have limited influence over the policies that political parties put before them. However, election defeats do send a message to parties not to persist with unpopular policies. Labour’s catastrophic defeat in the 1983 general election, followed by a slightly less disastrous performance in 1987, led the party leadership gradually to drop unpopular policies and move towards the centre ground.
Elections also allow small parties, which cannot hope to form a government, to put their views across. This enables them to draw attention to the issues they stand for, and sometimes to influence the larger parties to adopt some of their policies. For example, the increased public profile of the Greens in the 1990s was one reason why other parties began to emphasise the importance of countering climate change.

Question 13

Examples of elections influencing policy?

Answer 13

-Labour’s catastrophic defeat in the 1983 general election, followed by a slightly less disastrous performance in 1987, led the party leadership gradually to drop unpopular policies and move towards the centre ground.

-The increased public profile of the Greens in the 1990s was one reason why other parties began to emphasise the importance of countering climate change.

Question 14

Criteria for judging voting systems (4)

Answer 14

•a fair result that gives, as far as possible, equal value to people’s votes across the country
•a choice of candidates
•an effective link between the elected representative and the constituency
•a strong government that can pass laws but can be held to account by the electorate.

Question 15

Where is FPTP used?

Answer 15

General elections and by-elections, and local council elections in England and Wales.

Question 16

Which party can form a government in FPTP elections?

Answer 16

The party with the largest number of seats (not necessarily a majority of the votes cast across the country) has the right to form a government.

Question 17

Which elections governments being formed with a minority of votes? (2)

Answer 17

In 1951 and February 1974, the party forming the government secured fewer votes than the main oppostion party, suggesting that FPTP can distort voters’ wishes.

Question 18

What is a coalition government?

Answer 18

A government formed
of more than one
political party, normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and offices of state (for example, the Conservative-Liberat
Democrat coalition of 2010-15).

Question 19

When did all constituencies become single member ones?

Answer 19

In modern times the UK’s parliamentary system has been based on single-member representation -
each constituency elects one MP Until 1948 some constituencies returned more than one member (for example, several Lancashire towns, including Blackburn and Bolton, were dual-member constituencies).

Question 20

Constituency size variation and example of a correction

Answer 20

The average number of voters in a constituency is roughly 70,000, but there is considerable variation. The size of constituencies is regulated by an independent Boundary Commission, which recommends periodic changes based on movements of population. In 2005 the number of Scottish constituencies was reduced from 72 to 59 to bring its representation more closely into line with that of the rest of the UK.

Question 21

Example of large constituency

Answer 21

Isle of Wight

110,000

Question 22

Advantages of FPTP

Answer 22

-Strong and stable governments
-Speed and simplicity
-Exclusion of extremists
-A strong link between MPs and their constituencies

Question 23

Disadvantages of FPTP

Answer 23

-MPs and govs can be elected on less than 50 per cent of the vote

Question 24

Simplicity and speed of FPTP

Answer 24

FPTP is easy to use, with voters making a single cross and choosing one candidate. The result is usually known early in the morning after polling day and a new government is rapidly formed, allowing a swift and orderly transfer of power. The ease and familiarity of FPT help to explain continuing public support for its retention.

When voters were given the opportunity to replace it with the Alternative Vote (AV) in a referendum held in May 2011, almost 68 per cent of those who voted chose to retain FPTP.

Question 25

Exception to speed of FPTP and significance

Answer 25

The May 2010 general election was an exception, when negotiations between the prospective parties of government did not produce a result for 5 days. This would be the norm under a proportional system. The outcome of a general election would be determined by bargaining between the party leaders, which can take time.

Question 26

Example of slow forming of gov under PR

Answer 26

After the 2010 general election in Belgium, which uses a proportional system, it took almost 18 months to form a government. Admittedly this is an extreme example, but the fact remains that proportional systems are far less decisive than FPTP.

Question 27

Strong and stable government under FPTP

Answer 27

FPTP tends to promote a two-party system, which gives voters a clear choice. At general elections it usually gives a clear majority to one party, which then has a mandate to carry out its programme. The government can be removed at the next general election if the voters disapprove of its record. Supporters of FPTP argue that, by boosting the significance of smaller parties, proportional systems give them undue influence.

Proportional representation is far more likely than FPT to produce a coalition government. This means that the government’s programme will be worked out behind closed doors in negotiations between the party leaders, without the voters having the opportunity to give their verdict on it. In addition coalitions are sometimes unstable and can break up if one of the coalition parties has
fundamental disagreement with its partner.

Question 28

Examples of strong majorities allowing significant change (2)

Answer 28

For example, it enabled Margaret Thatcher to carry out her plans for the reduction of trade union power and privatisation in the 1980s, and allowed Tony Blair to undertake extensive constitutional reforms after his 1997 victory.

+Boris? Can resolve uncertainty/conflict

Question 29

Undue influence of smaller parties example

Answer 29

In Germany between 1969 and 1998, the Free Democrats never gained more than 10 per cent of the popular vote but were able to hold the balance of power between the two largest parties. They sustained the Social Democrats in office until 1982, when they switched their support to the Christian Democrats or German Conservatives.

Question 30

Exclusion of extremists under FPTP

Answer 30

Although critics of FPTP point to the way it under-represents smaller parties, the advantage of this is that extreme parties - which may feed on racism, xenophobia
and other extremist views - are much less likely to gain a foothold.

Question 31

Example of exclusion of extremists under FPTP

Answer 31

BNP got 563,743 votes but no seats in 2010.

Question 32

Strong link between MPs and their constituencies under FPTP

Answer 32

The relatively small size of most FTP constituencies, and the fact that a single MP is responsible for representing those who live within the constituency, are often seen as strengths. MPs handle correspondence from their constituents and hold surgeries at which they make themselves available to those seeking help and advice.

Question 33

Example of strong constituency link with MP under FPTP

Answer 33

Labour MP Stephen Timms, who represents East Ham in London, held the record for the greatest number of surgeries in 2011. He did so in spite of being stabbed by an Islamic extremist at a surgery the previous year, insisting that it was important for him to continue to be accessible.

Saw 2,300 constituents

Question 34

MPs don’t need majorities under FPTP

Answer 34

More than half of MPs typically do not command majority support within their constituency. This is because they do not need an overall majority of the votes cast, but can win by gaining just one more vote than the second placed candidate. It is quite possible for more votes to be cast against rather than for the winning candidate. Support for parties is even lower when turnout neures are taken into account. The turnout in 2015 in Belfast South was 60 per cent. so Alasdair McDonnell only polled 14.7 per cent of the electorate.

Question 35

Example of MP not getting majority

Answer 35

The turnout in Belfast South in 2015 was 60 per cent, so Alasdair McDonnell only polled 14.7 per cent of the electorate.

Question 36

Govs don’t need majorities under FPTP

Answer 36

FPTP regularly produces governments elected on a minority of the popular vote. The lowest percentage was recorded in 2005, when Tony Blair was re-elected on 35.2 per cent of the vote. This weakens the mandate enjoyed by the winning party, especially as general elections since 2001 have been characterised by low voter turnout. This feature means that significant numbers of voters feel that the system lacks legitimacy.

Question 37

Lowest percentage with gov being re-elected on minority of vote

Answer 37

The lowest percentage was recorded in 2005, when Tony Blair was re-elected on 35.2 per cent of the vote.

Question 38

Lack of proportionality under FPTP

Answer 38

FPTP does not translate the number of votes into seats for each party with any real accuracy. The system favours parties whose vote is concentrated, rather than those whose support is soread across a large geographical area. (Reinforces regional divisions and disunity). A party may come second in large number of seats but FPTP does not reward this because onlv one candidate can win in each constituency.

FPTP does not reflect the fact that the number of people voting for the two largest parties has been in decline for some time. Between 1945 and 1970, on average ten MPs from smaller parties were elected in each parliament. By 2015 that figure had risen to 87 MPs.

Question 39

Contrasting examples of lack of proportionality under FPTP

Answer 39

For example, UKIP won almost 3.9 million votes in 2015, but only one seat.

By contrast the Scottish National Party replaced Labour as the largest party in Scotland, taking 56 out of 59 seats with 50 per cent of the vote, because it campaigned only in one part of the UK.

Question 40

Evidence of more voting for smaller parties

Answer 40

Between 1945 and 1970, on average ten MPs from smaller parties were elected in each parliament. By 2015 that figure had risen to 87 MPs.

Question 41

Winner’s bonus under FPTP

Answer 41

The winning party under FPT enjoys a share of the seats in excess of the share of the vote it receives. This occurs if a large number of seats are marginal between the two main parties. For example, in the elections of 1983 and 1987 Margaret Thatcher won majorities of 144 and 102 respectively, on 42 per cent of the vote. In the 2015 election the winner’s bonus was much less marked, with David Cameron winning only a 12 seat majority, but there was still a mismatch between votes and seats. The Conservatives won 50.9 per cent of the seats with 36.9 per cent of the vote.
There is no precise percentage or winning margin to which this aligns, but a 10 per cent margin would need only a 5 per cent swing to the rival party to take it. Although marginal seats comprise only a minority of seats at Westminster, they are where general elections are commonly determined. Parties focus their resources heavily on these seats, spending large amounts of money on campaigning and enlisting the support of high-profile figures to lend support to their candidates.

Question 42

Examples of winner’s bonus

Answer 42

For example, in the elections of 1983 and 1987 Margaret Thatcher won majorities of 144 and 102 respectively, on 42 per cent of the vote.

In the 2015 election the winner’s bonus was much less marked, with David Cameron winning only a 12 seat majority, but there was still a mismatch between votes and seats. The Conservatives won 50.9 per cent of the seats with 36.9 per cent of the vote.

There is no precise percentage or winning margin to which this aligns, but a 10 per cent margin would need only a 5 per cent swing to the rival party to take it.

Question 43

How does FPTP limit voter choice?

Answer 43

FPTP limits the choice for voters in several ways. Each party puts forward a single candidate, so there is no choice between individuals representing different shades of opinion within the party. The prevalence of safe seats means that many voters have little hope of seeing their favoured candidate win. This can depress voter turnout, as people feel that there is no point in voting for a candidate who cannot hope to be elected, because the same political party holds the seat in every election.
Alternatively, people may resort to tactical voting - voting not for their favourite but for the candidate most likely to prevent the party they dislike from winning. In 2015 a number of vote-swapping websites were set up. These enabled people living in constituencies where their vote would be wasted to swap with someone in an area where it would make a difference. This is not illegal (unless inducement or pressure is applied) but it does shed a light on the way that the UK’s system of representative democracy works.

Question 44

Examples of safe seats

Answer 44

In the run-up to the 2015 general election the Electoral Reform Society estimated that 364 seats - 56 per cent of the total - were safe seats.

An example is Theresa May’s Maidenhead constituency in Berkshire, which she held with a majority of 29,059 in 2015, and which has been Conservative since 1885.

Question 45

Unequal value of votes under FPTP

Answer 45

In a small constituency a vote usually counts for more than it does in a larger one. For example, it took only 9407 votes to elect the MP for Orkney and Shetland, compared to 28,591 for the Isle of Wight MP. Votes are said to be wasted’ if they are cast for a losing candidate, or if they are cast for a winning candidate, in excess of the plurality needed for him or her to win. The Electoral Reform Society calculated that 74.4 per cent of votes cast in the 2015 election were wasted, compared to 71.1 per cent in 2010.

FPTP produces another kind of distortion known as ‘electoral deserts’ - areas of the country where one party cannot win seats. South-east England is an electoral desert for Labour. An area that is an electoral desert for one party may be described as a ‘heartland’ for its opponent. For example, north-east England, Merseyside and South Wales are Labour heartlands.

Question 46

Evidence of votes being wasted

Answer 46

For example, it took only 9407 votes to elect the MP for Orkney and Shetland, compared to 28,591 for the Isle of Wight MP.

Votes are said to be wasted’ if they are cast for a losing candidate, or if they are cast for a winning candidate, in excess of the plurality needed for him or her to win.

The Electoral Reform Society calculated that 74.4 per cent of votes cast in the 2015 election were wasted, compared to 71.1 per cent in 2010.

Question 47

What are marginal seats?

Answer 47

Seats held by a small majority, where a small swing to an opposition candidate can cause the seat to change hands.

Question 48

What are safe seats?

Answer 48

Constituencies in which the sitting MP has a secure majority over the nearest rival, and is largely immune from swings in voting choice.

Question 49

Example of marginal seat

Answer 49

Thanet South, Kent

This seat has been won by the winning party at every general election since its creation:

Conservative in 1983, 1987 and 1992; Labour in 1997, 2001 and 2005; Conservative again in 2010.
In 2015 it was held by the Conservative candidate, Craig Mackinlay, against a challenge from UKIP Leader; Nigel Farage, with a majority of 2812 and was retained by Mackinlay in 2017.

Question 50

What are electoral deserts and what are some examples?

Answer 50

Areas of the country where one party cannot win seats. South-east England is an electoral desert for Labour. An area that is an electoral desert for one party may be described as a ‘heartland’ for its opponent. For example, north-east England, Merseyside and South Wales are Labour heartlands.

Question 51

UK electoral systems other than FPTP

Answer 51

In the late 1990s the Blair government introduced new voting systems for different elections, while leaving first past the post unchanged for Westminster.

• The additional member system is a hybrid or mixed system, combining elements of FPTP and PR.
•The single transferable vote is a form of PR.
• The supplementary vote is majoritarian, not proportional .

Question 52

Where is AMS used?

Answer 52

The Scottish parliament, Welsh Assembly, Greater London Assembly (GLA)

Question 53

How does AMS work?

Answer 53

• Voters have two votes: the first is for a constituency representative, who is elected using FPTP; the second is for a party list and uses multi-member regional constituencies, introducing an element of proportional representation.
• There are lewer list members than constituency representatives, and so they are known as
“additional’ or ‘top-up’ members. In the Scottish parliament, 73 of the 129 members are elected in single-member constituencies, with the remaining 56 seats being hilled by list members. In the Welsh Assembly 40 of the 60 members represent single-member constituencies, with 20 list members. In the GLA 14 of the 25 members are elected in single-member constituencies and 11
top-up members
• These bodies have 4-year fixed terms.

Question 54

Advantages of AMS (3)

Answer 54

• The top-up component introduces a proportional element, acting as a corrective to the FPTP part of the system. A calculation is made using the d’Hondt formula to determine how many members a party should be allocated from the lists. For example, in Scotland the Conservative Party won no seats in the 1997 Westminster election under FPTP, but the list enabled it to win a total of 18 seats in the first Scottish parliament elections in 1999.
• The FPT element maintains a strong link between the member and the constituency.
• Electors have wider choice than under FPTP; they can vote for a ‘split ticket’ if they wish, using their constituency vote to choose a representative from one party, and their top-up vote to
support another party.

Question 55

Disadvantages of AMS (3)

Answer 55

•It creates two different types of member - some with constituency responsibilities and some without. However, there is little evidence that the second category is seen as having less legitimacy.
• A closed list system is used, which means that the party leadership ranks candidates in order on the list. It can use this power to limit the chances of dissident members of the party being elected.
• Smaller parties achieve less representation than under a fully proportional system. This is especially true in Wales where the small number of top-up seats has advantaged Labour. The SNP has been the dominant party in Scotland since 2007, running a majority government in 2011-16.

Question 56

What is AMS?

Answer 56

a hybrid electoral system in which the voter makes two choices. Firstly, the voter selects a representative on a simple plurality (first past the post) system, then a second vote is apportioned to a party list
for a second or accitional
representative

Question 57

What is STV?

Answer 57

an electoral system that
allows voters to rank their preferences in numerical order. In order to win a seat,
a candidate must obtain a quota. After the votes are cast, those candidates with the least votes are eliminated and their votes are transterred. Those candidates with excess votes above the quota also have their votes transterred

Question 58

What is SV?

Answer 58

A majoritarian electoral system that gives the voter two choices. It one candidate obtains more than 50 per cent on the first vote, then they are elected.
If no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates remain. Then the supplementary choices are redistributed to produce a single winner.

Question 59

Where is STV used?

Answer 59

The Northern Ireland Assembly, European parliament elections in Northern Ireland, Scottish council elections.

Question 60

How does STV work?

Answer 60

• It uses multi-member constituencies; in the case of the Northern Ireland Assembly, there are 18 each returning five members.
• Voters number their choices preferentially: 1, 2, 3 etc.
• In order to be elected, a candidate needs to achieve a quota, arrived at using the Droop formula which divides the number of votes cast by the number of seats contested plus one.

The results are calculated using a complex counting process that takes into account voters’ second preferences. If a candidate reaches the quota on the first round of counting, they are elected and their second preferences are redistributed. If no one attains the quota, the least popular candidate is eliminated and the second preferences of those who voted for this candidate are transferred.
This process is continued until all the seats are filled.

Question 61

Advantages of STV

Answer 61

• There is a close correlation between votes and seats. E.g.?
•Voter choice is high; it is possible to choose between candidates standing for the same party & well as between candidates from different parties.
•In Northern Ireland it has created a power-sharing government that enables representatives of the two rival communities, the unionists and nationalists, to work together, ending 30 years of violent disturbance in Northern Ireland.

Question 62

Evidence of STV close correlation between votes and seats

Answer 62

Northern Ireland Assembly elections, May 2016:

DUP got 29% of vote and 35% of seats
Sinn Fein got 24% votes and 23% seats

Question 63

Disadvantages of STV

Answer 63

• It is not fully proportional, particularly where smaller multi-member constituencies are used.
• In large multi-member constituencies, the link between the member and the voters may be weak.
•Power-sharing governments may bring rival groups together but they are still prone to conflict.
The Northern Ireland executive was suspended several times in its early years, including for almost five years in 2002-07 as a result of a breakdown of trust. Co-operation between the parties broke down again early in 2017, triggering further elections. ST did not help the more centrist parties in the long term. The dominant parties are now the Democratic Unionist Party and republican Sinn Fein. Since 2007 they have replaced the more moderate Ulster Unionist Party and Social and Democratic Labour Party. Voting across community lines is still rare.

Question 64

How has STV impacted NI?

Answer 64

In Northern Ireland it has created a power-sharing government that enables representatives of the two rival communities, the unionists and nationalists, to work together, ending 30 years of violent disturbance in Northern Ireland.

Power-sharing governments may bring rival groups together but they are still prone to conflict.
The Northern Ireland executive was suspended several times in its early years, including for almost five years in 2002-07 as a result of a breakdown of trust. Co-operation between the parties broke down again early in 2017, triggering further elections. ST did not help the more centrist parties in the long term. The dominant parties are now the Democratic Unionist Party and republican Sinn Fein. Since 2007 they have replaced the more moderate Ulster Unionist Party and Social and Democratic Labour Party. Voting across community lines is still rare.

Add recent years

Question 65

Where is SV used?

Answer 65

Elections for the London Mayor and other elected mayors, Police and Crime Commissioners in England and Wales.

Question 66

How does SV work?

Answer 66

• Each voter is allowed a first and a second preference vote.
• Any candidate who gains more than 50 per cent of first preference votes is elected automatically.
• If this does not occur, all candidates except the top two are eliminated. Second preference votes for these two candidates are now added to produce one overall winner.

Question 67

Advantages of STV (3)

Answer 67

• It ensures broad support for the winner. Sadig Khan, elected Mayor of London in May 2016, has the largest personal mandate of any elected politician in British history (almost 57% total percentage of votes)
• It is simple and straightforward to use
• It has allowed some independent candidates to win; for example 12 out of 40 police and crime commissioners were independents in the 2012 contest, although the number fell in the second elections in 2016.

Question 68

Example of independents winning under STV

Answer 68

For example 12 out of 40 police and crime commissioners were independents in the 2012 contest, although the number fell in the second elections in 2016.

Question 69

Disadvantages of STV (3)

Answer 69

• SV is not proportional as one individual is being elected to a single office.
•The winner does not need to get an absolute majority of the votes cast.
•Voters need to be able to identify the likely top two candidates in order to have influence over
the outcome, and this is not always clear (with the exception of London).

Question 70

Comparison of FPTP and STV candidate choice

Answer 70

STV gives voters a wider choice, even allowing a choice between candidates from different wines of the same party in a multi-member constituency. On the
other hand, it may encourage donkey voting - voters may list candidates in rank order as stated on the ballot paper.

Question 71

Comparison of FPTP and STV fair result and equal vote value

Answer 71

ST translates votes into seats more fairly, helping smaller parties that are under-represented under FPTP. It does away with tactical voting as voters do not have to vote for the candidate who is most likely to block the one they dislike.

Question 72

Comparison of FPTP and STV constituency link

Answer 72

This is weaker under STC, especially in underpopulated multi-member constituencies which are too large for their representatives to know well. On the other hand, the absence of sate seats under STV makes candidates work harder for votes, so that they have to address concerns across the whole of the constituency FPTP encourages parties to focus on key marginal seats at the expense of others.

Question 73

Comparison of FPTP and STV producing strong but accountable government

Answer 73

Votes take longer to count under STV, possibly delaying the formation ot a government. It is likely
to produce a coalition - this may encourage a more consensual style ot government, or it may lead to instability. Coalitions pursue a programme agreed by politicians after the election, on
which voters have not given a verdict. Or it may result in a weak minority governments. Both can occur under FPTP out they are much less common.

Question 74

Example of confused voters leading to invalid votes

Answer 74

146,000 ballots incorrectly completed in Scotland in 2007.

Question 75

Example of country with many coalitions

Answer 75

Since the end of World War II in 1945, Italy has had 69 governments, at an average of one every 1.11 years.

Question 76

How many seats would UKIP have received in 2015 under STV?

Answer 76

54

Question 77

What is a minority government?

Answer 77

A government that takes office but does not have a majority of seats in parliament, which makes passing legislation very difficult. After an indecisive general election, Labour leader Harold Wilson took office in March 1974 as leader of a minority government, although he was able to win a small majority in a further election in October.

Question 78

What is a counter to strong constituency link under FPTP?

Answer 78

FPTP looks best but much will depend on the individual MP and especially when they win less than 50% of the vote how many voters are happy going to for help and being represented by someone from a party they voted against.

Also, media increasingly concentrates on party leaders and many people are unaware of who their MP is.

Question 79

Why has FPTP survived for Westminster elections?

Answer 79

First past the post has survived largely because the outcomes it produces usually suit the interests of the two largest parties, who have largely monopolised government since 1945. The Labour Party offered a referendum on FPTP before the 1997 general election, but had no incentive to deliver this after winning a large independent majority under the existing system. The coalition offered a referendum on AV after taking office in 2010 because this was a key demand of the Liberal Democrats when they agreed to participate in the government.
Voters accept FPTP because it is familiar and easy to use, and there is little desire to change it for an untried system that may bring problems of its own. The outcome of the May 2011 referendum demonstrated the lack of popular support for change.

Question 80

Why was AMS adopted for Scottish and Welsh devolved elections?

Answer 80

AMS was the price that Labour paid for winning acceptance of its devolution plans from the other political parties. The Liberal Democrats and SP would have preferred ST for the Scottish parliament as they expected that Labour would sweep the board under a less proportional system,
AMS was chosen as a compromise that would result in a broadly representative parliament, but without involving such a radical change as STV. It pacified the other parties by providing an element of proportionality but was also acceptable to Labour because it retained local representation (a feature of FPTP). Labour expected that AMS would enable it to play a part in government in Scotland and, at least until the SN victory in 2007, this proved to be correct. After AMS had been agreed on for Scotland it was decided to use the same system for Wales, where support for devolution was much weaker.

Question 81

Why was AMS adopted for the Greater London Assembly?

Answer 81

AMS was adopted for the Greater London Assembly because it had already been selected for Scotland and Wales. It would broadly reflect the views of the population of the capital while retaining an element of geographical representation.

Question 82

Why was STV adopted for the NI Assembly?

Answer 82

STV was chosen for Northern Ireland after the 1998 Good Friday Agreement because it is a highly proportional system, likely to ensure the broadest possible representation of different parties.
In view of the background of conflict between unionist and nationalist communities in Northern Ireland, it was important to avoid single-party domination, which could have derailed the fragile peace process. The use of STV ensures that governments are power-sharing bodies drawn from both sides of the divide. Another reason is that STV was already used in the Republic of Ireland.
It had also been used for short periods when a previous Northern Ireland parliament had been in existence, between the 1920s and 1970s, and so had roots in the province.

Question 83

Why is SV used to choose mayors?

Answer 83

Both SV and AV were considered as possibilities when the Labour government was deciding which method to use for choosing the London Mayor - and thus the mayor for other cities. SV was chose partly because it was simpler to use. It was also preferred because only the top two candidates. after first preferences had been counted, would make it through to the final round. This meant that candidates with little positive support would be less likely to win merely because they were a ‘lowest common denominator’ second or third choice. In this way the winner would have a clear mandate

Question 84

How are more coalitions a consequence of PR? UK examples

Answer 84

An important consequence of the adoption of proportional (or partly proportional) electoral svstems is that coalition or minority governments have become much more common in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. This is in contrast with Westminster, which continues to experience single party rule as the norm (with the exceptions in modern times of the 2010-15 coalition and the 2017 agreement between the Conservatives and the Democratic Unionist Party). However, the worst predictions made by critics of proportional representation have not been fulfilled.
Coalition governments in different parts of the UK have proved to be stable and, unlike in some other countries that use PR, there have not been frequent changes of government. The devolved administrations have mostly served for sustained periods

Question 85

Effect of PR on compromise?

Answer 85

There has also beer a change to the way in which governments are formed and policy is made. Negotiations between political parties, which remain rare at Westminster, are the normal way in which business is conducted in Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast.

Question 86

Compromising in Scottish gov

Answer 86

Majority government has been the exception to the rule in Scotland. When it was in a minority, the SP government had to win the support of other parties in order to pass legislation. In February 2011, in order to win support for its budget, the administration had to make concessions to the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. In response to claims that its budget did not do enough to promote economic recovery, the SP agreed to measures to increase youth employment and training, Clams that new voting systems would produce a more consensual style of politics have not entirely been fulfilled.
There has been conflict on the central issue of Scottish independence, since the SNP is outnumbered by parties that support the Union

Question 87

Compromising in Welsh gov

Answer 87

In Wales, Labour has consistently been the strongest party but, the proportional element of AMS has frequently denied it the opportunity to govern alone. Like the SP in Scotland, Welsh Labour has so far formed only one majority administration.

Question 88

Compromising in NI Assembly

Answer 88

In Northern Ireland, the Good Friday Agreement requires that representatives of the main unionist and nationalist parties are included in the executive.
The choice of STV for Assembly elections guarantees that members of the two rival communitles are elected, rather than Northern Ireland submitting lo single-party domination as this could risk a return to sectarian violence.
The first minister and deputy first minister - nominated by the two largest parties - are equal in status and share governmental responsiblities. The system of government is desiened to ensure joint participation by unionists and nationalists or repuolicans.

Question 89

Example of NI coalition gov

Answer 89

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Question 90

Amount of compromise at Westminster

Answer 90

By contrast, at Westminster the main parties remain in an adversarial relationship, with one major opposition party clearly playing the role of an alternative government and smaller parties having much less influence. From the 1990s to the 2010 general election, the electoral system for Westminster tended to favour the Labour Party - a trend now beginning to reverse. This was because with FPTP the distribution of votes is important. In the Blair-Brown era, safe Labour seats tended to have lower populations, as the revision of constituency boundaries had not kept pace with the movement of people away from inner cities to more affluent suburban and rural areas. In short, it took fewer votes to return a Labour MP than a Conservative. This, together with a slightly lower average turnout in the seats it held, gave Labour an advantage. The Conservatives’ vote was less efficiently distributed across the constituencies. This unevenness does not occur under proportional systems.

Question 91

How has PR affected policy making in devolved governments?

Answer 91

Sub-national governments have used their devolved powers to differentiate themselves in terms of policy from what happens at Westminster. Under the Scottish Labour-Liberal Democrat coalition it was decided that university students in Scotland would not pay tuition fees and elderly people would receive free nursing care. In both Scotland and Wales, prescription charges were abolished.
None of these benefits were extended to people living in England. This means that there is no longer a uniform welfare state across the UK. This can be directly attributed to the selection of AMS as the electoral system for the Scottish parliament. It ensured that, by obliging it to enter coalition with the centre-left Liberal Democrats, Scottish Labour did not follow the rightward drift of the party at Westminster in the New Labour era.

Question 92

How have different electoral systems affected party representation?

Answer 92

As you have seen, the adoption of fully or partly proportional systems has assisted smaller parties to varying extents. The systems used in ‘second order’ elections are not affected to the same degree as FPTP by the geographical distribution of votes. So in the 2015 general election, the only third parties that did well were those, like the SP or DUP, that campaigned in particular regions of the UK where their support is concentrated.
Smaller parties have a vested interest in reforming the electoral system but little realistic chance of achieving it. The experience of coalition government at Westminster has not encouraged a public demand for reform. This is despite the fact that in 2015 almost a quarter of the electorate voted for a party other than the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberal Democrats.

Question 93

Effects of different electoral systems on voter choice

Answer 93

AMS allows people two votes, for a constituency and a list candidate. Even more choice is offered by STV, where a preferential voting system allows voters to differentiate not only between political parties but also between candidates from the same party. STV involves fewer ‘wasted’ votes than FPTP, and offers greater potential to choose the winning candidate because of its proportional
character. SV allows voters a first and a second preterence vote.
All of these systems provide more choice than FPTP, under which voters can choose only one candidate. However, if they live in a safe seat, even this has little chance of affecting the
expected outcome