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Presidency Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the role of the president as Head of State.

A

the President is seen as a figurehead of the country, the main authority and must be in charge in time of crisis. Bush was a good example after 9/11.

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2
Q

How can media influence the role of Head of State?

A

Presidents will often engage the media to make their presence more known. For example, Trump and his endless use of Twitter.

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3
Q

What does the role of Head of Government mean?

A

The President is chief executive of the federal office of the executive.

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4
Q

What are the executive powers of the President?

A
  • chief executive of the federal govt
  • prepares the annual budget
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5
Q

What are the legislative powers of the President?

A
  • proposes legislation
  • signs legislation
  • can veto laws
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6
Q

What are the appointment powers of the President?

A
  • nominates executive officials
  • nominates federal judges
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7
Q

What are the foreign affairs powers of the President?

A
  • commander-in-chief
  • negotiates treaties
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8
Q

What other people does the president have?

A

pardons

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9
Q

Describe the power of acting as chief executive

A
  • the power is giving in the first 15 words of Article 2
  • allows them to control EXOP which helps with running the country
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10
Q

Describe the power of submitting the budget.

A
  • the Office of Management and Budget draws up the federal budget before the president submits it to Congress. It can cause disputes as seen in the shutdown 2018-9
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11
Q

Describe the power of proposing legislation.

A
  • can do it through the annual State of the Union address or after calling a press conference or at a public event.
  • In 2018, Trump used his SOUA to promise a crackdown on immigration
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12
Q

Describe the power of signing legislation.

A
  • there are often elaborate bill signing ceremonies which makes the president seen more prestigious.
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13
Q

Describe the power of vetoing legislation.

A
  • altogether, presidents have used around 1500 vetoes
  • Trump used 10 vetoes, 9 were successful
  • can be overridden by a 2/3 majority
  • Obama’s veto on the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act was overturned.
  • they also have the pocket veto.
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14
Q

Describe the power of nominating exec branch officials.

A
  • they have patronage to appt to the cabinet
  • Biden’s cabinet was the most diverse ever.
  • Antony Blinken - Sec of State
  • Presidents can also make nominations to lower positions.
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15
Q

Describe the power of nominating federal judges.

A
  • arguably the biggest legacy of a president
  • Trump got 3 nominations which was huge
  • needs a simple majority in the Senate.
    Trump’s appts were Gorsuch, Kavanaugh and Coney-Barrett.
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16
Q

Describe the power of acting as commander-in-chief.

A
  • increased after 9/11
  • Obama was drawn into conflict in Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya and Syria
  • Trump withdrew troops from Syria and Afghanistan in 2019.
  • Congress is increasingly losing its powers here. It has allowed for far more presidential control
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17
Q

Describe the power of negotiating treaties.

A
  • Obama negotiated a Nuclear Arms Treaty with Russia
  • president’s power is checked by the Senate’s need to ratify.
  • However, Presidents can sign executive agreements instead.
  • In 1999, Clinton failed to get a majority on the Comprehensive test Ban Treaty.
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18
Q

Describe the power of Pardon.

A
  • can remove criminal charges from people
  • Obama pardoned 212 people
  • Trump worked with Kim Kardashian to pardon Alice Marie Johnson who served 22 years for a non-violent related drug crime.
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19
Q

What are the 3 main powers of the VP?

A
  • taking over from the president
  • acting as presiding officer of the Senate
  • presiding over the counting of the Electoral College votes
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20
Q

Describe the power of the VP to take over from the president.

A
  • 9 VPs have become president after being VP
  • In 1974, after Nixon resigned, Ford took over as president for example.
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21
Q

Describe the power of the VP to act as the presiding officer of the Senate.

A
  • can cast the deciding vote in a tie
  • Biden never used this in his two terms as VP
  • Mike Pence however made 13 tie breaking votes
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22
Q

Describe the power of the VP to preside over the Electoral College counting.

A
  • was purely ceremonial until 2021 when Trump used it to overturn and claim that the election results were fake. Pence followed the constitution and ignored Trump. The storming of the Capitol was mixed in all of this.
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23
Q

What are informal powers?

A

powers that are political not constitutional.

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24
Q

What are the informal sources of president power?

A
  • the cabinet
  • EXOP
  • White House Office
  • National security council
  • OMB
  • Power of persuasion
  • Executive orders
  • Executive agreements
  • Signing statements
  • electoral mandate
  • public approval
  • national events
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25
Q

What is the historical background of the cabinet?

A
  • originally 3 departments, now there are 15
  • was not outlined in the constitution
  • Washington had a cabinet to help advise him
  • generally have specialists appointed such as Lloyd Austin in 2021 who was an retired army general made defence secretary
  • highly unusual for Senate to reject appts
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26
Q

When was a presidential appt to cabinet nearly dropped?

A

2017 - Pence had to cast the final vote on the appt of Betsy DeVos as education secretary.

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27
Q

What is a balanced cabinet?

A

A cabinet with a mix of gender, race, ethnicity, age and religion.

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28
Q

How was Trump’s cabinet descrived?

A

‘older, richer and whiter’ than his predecessors.

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29
Q

How many cabinet meetings did Obama and Trump hold?

A

Obama - 28
Trump - 25

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30
Q

Who attends cabinet meetings?

A

heads of exec departments, the VP, administration officials.

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31
Q

How many changes were made in Trump’s cabinet?

A
  1. Even before the end of his 3rd year, he was on his 5th secretary for defence.
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32
Q

Why are cabinet meetings largely not productive?

A

they are made up of people who are specialists on one policy area and therefore have little to contribute in other areas.

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33
Q

What are the functions of cabinet?

A
  • create team spirit
  • create media coverage - Trump used it to show his dominance
  • exchange info
  • present ‘big picture’ items - eg discussing the response to COVID
  • monitor congress - 3rd Feb 2015, Obama called a meeting to discuss the progress of Congress.
  • prompt action
  • enable personal contact
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34
Q

What was on the agenda of Trump’s cabinet meeting on 19th May 2020.

A

response to COVID-19

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35
Q

Why is cabinet never hugely important?

A
  • ‘all executive’ power is with the President
  • no doctrine of collective responsibility
  • not political rivals
  • the existence of EXOP.
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36
Q

What is EXOP?

A

Executive Office of the President - people who help the president carry out the running of the country on a daily basis.

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37
Q

When was EXOP established?

A

1939

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38
Q

Why was EXOP established?

A
  • there had been a huge increase in the size of the federal government
  • after the great depression, the states needed federal support
  • the USA was about to become a major player in world politics
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39
Q

How many members does EXOP have?

A

2000

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40
Q

What happened in EXOP while Trump was president?

A

there was an 86% turnover of top officials

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41
Q

What is the White House Office?

A

the personal office of the president within EXOP.

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42
Q

How many offices are in the WHO?

A

30

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43
Q

What is the function of WHO?

A

helping and advising the president

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44
Q

What is the most important job in the WHO?

A

White House chief of staff

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45
Q

What is the danger of the White House Chief of Staff?

A

they become too powerful - like a deputy president

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46
Q

What is the best type of WH chief of staff?

A

one who seeks the best interest of the president rather than their own.

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47
Q

What is a famous WH chief of staff moment?

A

Andrew Card telling Bush about 9/11 in front of the Primary School Class

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48
Q

How did Trump fire his first chief of staff?

A

On Twitter in July 2017 when he said he would be replaced by Kelly

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49
Q

What happened to Kelly?

A

Trump casually announced that he would be leaving to reporters in 2019 by saying ‘John Kelly will be leaving, I don’t know if I can say ‘retiring’. But he is a great guy.’

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50
Q

How many chief of staff did Trump have?

A

4

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51
Q

Who created the OMB?

A

Nixon 1970.

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52
Q

What are the 3 main functions on OMB?

A
  • advising the president on the allocation of federal funds
  • overseeing the spending of federal departments
  • act as a clearing house for initiatives coming from the exec branch
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53
Q

When was the National Security council established?

A

1947

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54
Q

What does the NSC do?

A

it is a forum for deliberating about national security and foreign policy

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55
Q

Who is the national security adviser for Biden?

A

Jake Sullivan.

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56
Q

How did Trump want to run the NSC?

A

he preferred to receive oral reports and would not read what was given to him. he would also be reluctant to listen to the advice given to him.

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57
Q

What is the power of persuasion?

A

when the president uses their prestige and bargaining methods to get what they want.

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58
Q

Why does the president need the power to persuade?

A

Congress is getting more and more powerful and almost all the powers of the president are checked by Congress.

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59
Q

What makes president control of Congress even more difficult?

A

divided govts

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60
Q

How ca a president get persuasion through people?

A
  • appt the main positions early to exploit the honeymoon period of the presidency - means the presidency starts off well
  • appoint a good chief of staff - in recent times the most successful has been Andrew Card for Bush
  • used closed discussions when forming plans - ensure that big reforms have some appeal to most parties. Biden did this when trying to introduce the American rescue plan
  • build a feeling of pride and loyalty - this can ensure that it is easier to persuade staff
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61
Q

What are the 3 sources of direct authority?

A
  • executive orders
  • executive agreements
  • signing statements
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62
Q

What is an executive order?

A

an official document issued by the exec branch through force of law.

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63
Q

What type of power is an executive order?

A

an extra-constitutional power

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64
Q

How many executive orders did Trump use?

A

206

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65
Q

Give an example of one of Trump’s executive orders.

A

a travel ban from several Islamic countries

66
Q

Which president used the most executive orders?

A

Franklin D Roosevelt - 3552

67
Q

What is the problem with executive orders?

A

they are easy to pass but equally as easy to reverse. Biden spent lots of time undoing many of Trump’s orders including the travel ban, banning trans people from the military and war stuff.

68
Q

Which executive order did Trump sign in 2018?

A

an order to keep Guantanamo Bay to detain terrorists.

69
Q

Give an example of a presidential exec order that was ruled unconstitutional.

A

2009 - Obama tried to close Guantanamo bay, Congress didn’t approve.

70
Q

What is an executive agreement?

A

an agreement between the president and a foreign power without formal treaties.

71
Q

How many executive agreements do president’s sign on average?

A

200

72
Q

Why can executive agreements benefit the president?

A

they do not have to be ratified by the Senate

73
Q

What is a signing statement?

A

a statement issued by the president on signing a bill which may challenge specific provisions in relation to the constitution.

74
Q

What are the criticisms of a signing statement?

A

they are an overuse of president power. they think the better action is to wait and see what the SC rules on the bill.

75
Q

When did Obama use a signing statement?

A

2011 - National Defence Authorisation Act.

76
Q

How many signing statements did Trump use?

A

2

77
Q

How does the electoral mandate influence the power of the president?

A
  • the larger the mandate, the more they can do
  • although, due to partisanship this is less common
78
Q

What was Trump’s electoral mandate like?

A

he had less than 50% of the popular vote meaning his mandate was less valid. he had around 3 million votes less than Clinton

79
Q

How does public approval influence the power of the president?

A

the higher the approval, the more power. Bush had an approval rating of over 90% after 9/11 which allowed him to pass the PATRIOT act.

80
Q

How is public approval changing?

A

due to partisanship, approval ratings are generally lower for presidents which gives them less power.

81
Q

What was Trump’s average approval rating?

A

41%

82
Q

How do national events help the president?

A

often results in the country looking to the president for leadership which increases their power. this was seen in 9/11 and COVD-19.

83
Q

Does Congress have more power than the president?

A

no they are equal

84
Q

Give an example of recent bipartisan co-operation

A

the CARES act in March 2020, helped the US to recover from the pandemic economically

85
Q

What is required for a veto to be overridden?

A

a 2/3 majority

86
Q

How does the election cycle affect relations with Congress?

A

the members of Congress are more likely to prioritise their constituency near elections.

87
Q

What often happens to presidents in the second terms?

A

they become lame ducks with far lower and support and productivity, this is often due to presiding over a divided govt.

88
Q

What was the high and low point of Trump’s presidency?

A

high - passing the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act
low - failing to repeal Obamacare

89
Q

What other factor determines the power of the president?

A

divided vs united govt

90
Q

Describe the influence that the president has on the SC.

A
  • can exert little pressure
  • the constitution was deliberately framed to avoid power of any chamber being exploited.
  • presidents usually support the SC anyway
91
Q

What influence does the SC have on the president?

A

can declare things unconstitutional such as 2016 when Obama tried to implement immigration reform via exec order.

92
Q

What is an imperial president?

A

a presidency characterised by the misuse of power.

93
Q

Where did the imperial presidency begin?

A

with FDR who oversaw the huge expansion of the federal govt.

94
Q

What is a good example of an imperial presidency?

A

Nixon and Watergate in 1972

95
Q

What is an imperilled president?

A

a president that is ineffective and weak which results in Congress domination

96
Q

Which 2 Acts reduced the influence of Congress?

A

The Case Act 1972 - forced presidents to inform Congress of all executive agreements
War Powers Act 1974 - attempted to stop presidents from using troops without permission

97
Q

Which thing suggest that Clinton was an imperial president?

A
  • apparently was going to launch a 20,000 troop invasion of Haiti without Congress approval
  • Serbian air war
  • NATO involvement in the Yugoslavia issues of the 1990s
98
Q

What things challenge that Clinton was imperial?

A
  • he never actually invaded Haiti
  • he was unsuccessful in passing his healthcare reforms
  • only example is the unilateral involvement in Yugoslavia
99
Q

Which things suggest that Bush was imperial?

A
  • war on terror after 9/11, invaded Afghanistan and Iraq
  • used exec orders on anti-terrorist measures
  • had a huge approval rating
  • was able to pass large legislation like Patriot Act
  • No Child Left Behind 2002
100
Q

Which thing suggest that Bush was not imperial?

A
  • he often would often seek the approval of Congress
  • had restrictions from the SC
  • lame duck in his last 2 years
  • his power was gained from legit sources
101
Q

In which respects was Obama imperial?

A
  • extended the patriot act
  • major offensive in Afghanistan
  • launched attacks in Libya
  • he sanctioned the death of an alleged terrorist in Yemen by drone
  • only imperial in FP
102
Q

In which ways was Obama imperilled?

A
  • could not close Guantanamo bay
  • big issues with Obamacare
  • had to use an exec agreement for his Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action with Iran.
103
Q

How was Trump imperial in foreign policy?

A
  • pulled out of the Paris agreement
  • he promised to ‘bomb the shit out of ISIS’
  • acted unilaterally with North Korea where he called the president ‘little rocket man’.
  • can be argued that he actually improved relations with North Korea
  • he removed troops from Afghanistan too.
104
Q

What was the Mueller investigation 2017-9?

A
  • investigation by the Justice Department over the possible links between Trump and Russia
  • found him not guilty but was embarrassing
  • suggests imperilled
105
Q

Describe Trump’s first impeachment.

A
  • 2019-2020, shows that he attempted to coerce the Ukrainian govt into revealing info about Biden. He was acquitted but wasn’t good for his power.
106
Q

Describe Trump’s second impeachment.

A

Jan-Feb 2021, said that his language had incited the storming of the Capitol in Jan 6th. He was found not guilty 57 votes to 43. 7 republicans voted guilty

107
Q

What congressional opposition did Trump face?

A
  • replacing Obamacare
  • the 35 day shutdown over the budget 2018-9
  • Trump’s opponent Nancy Pelosi - democrat House Speaker, he refused to shake her hand before his 2020 State of the Union address
  • divided govt hindered Trump
108
Q

How did COVID-19 affect Trump?

A

could not communicate a coherent national plan which made him seem weak in a time of crisis.

109
Q

How did the George Floyd protests impact Trump?

A

highlighted racism in America and his lack of support or action made him far less popular and powerful among many. he tweeted ‘when the looting starts, the shooting starts.’

110
Q

Does the imperial president exist?

A

Presidents in the past were generally more imperial than today. At the moment presidents tend to be a mixture - most imperial abroad

111
Q

Which arguments suggest that the USA has an imperial presidency?

A
  • Nixon’s unilateralism
  • Presidents hardly ask for Congress approval in military action
  • presidents can bypass Congress
  • partisan support can prevent accountability
  • depends on the presidential style.
112
Q

Which arguments suggest that the USA has an imperilled presidency?

A
  • Case Act and War Powers Act
  • can reject the budget
  • hard to get congressional support
  • lame duck presidencies
  • acting in an imperial style does not actually mean you are imperial.
113
Q

Which 2 specific powers relate to foreign policy?

A

treaties and commander in chief

114
Q

Which appts to the executive branch have FP implication?

A

defence sec, homeland security, ambassadors to the UN and NATO.

115
Q

What was the Bush Doctrine?

A

emerged after 9/11 and related to his ‘axis of evil’. Has two main parts - the belief that the American way was the best way to exist as a nation and the right to wage pre-emptive war against perceived threats.

116
Q

What did the Bush administration believe about terrorism?

A

it was a challenge to world politics which had to be defeated

117
Q

What was Obama’s foreign policy approach?

A

soft power - he would use diplomacy as his primary way of getting what he wanted in FP. However, this didn’t really stay. An offensive was launched in Afghanistan, the Patriot Act was extended 4 years and a suggest terrorist in Yemen was bombed by a drone.

118
Q

What is the predicted number of air strikes in Obama’s presidency?

A

300

119
Q

Which withdrawals did Obama make?

A

withdrew from Iraq in 2011 and set a date of Dec 2016 to withdraw from Afghanistan.

120
Q

How has Trump’s FP been described?

A

hawkish pragmatism

121
Q

What did Trump do in 2017?

A

launch an attack against an air base in Syria

122
Q

What was reported about Trump?

A

he had almost quit NATO

123
Q

What was Trump’s aim with China?

A

to reduce their cooperation however he actually saw China’s trade surplus to the USA grow by 25%

124
Q

How can Congress’ FP power be described?

A

in theory, it exists but it decreasing constantly and the president is gaining far more power.

125
Q

How can Congress hold the president to account?

A

By amending, delaying and rejecting their legislation. This is less effective in times of united govt.
Although, the Republican Congress 2017-8 didn’t allow Trump to repeal Obamacare.
Obama had to deal with amendments to ACA

126
Q

Which president found it easiest to control legislation?

A

Bush - he controlled Congress for 6 out of 8 years.

127
Q

For home many years did Obama control Congress?

A

2

128
Q

How does the power of the purse have an impact?

A

they can reject the president’s budget and this can lead to a shutdown.

129
Q

Give examples of president’s struggling with the Senate approving their appts?

A
  • Bush had to withdraw the nomination of Harriet Miers to the SC as the Senate made it clear she was not experienced enough in 2005.
    -Trump had to withdraw his nomination of Andrew Puzler for secretary of labor in 2017 when questions about his personal life meant he could not be brought in
130
Q

What happened to Obama in 2016?

A

the Senate rejected his nomination of Merrick Garland to the SC as he was a Democrat and the Senate was Republican.

131
Q

Give examples of scrutiny faced by Clinton.

A
  • 1993, financial disputes known as Travelgate
  • he was impeached 1998-9 based on counts of perjury and obstruction - he was acquitted by a democrat senate.
132
Q

Give examples of scrutiny faced by Bush.

A
  • he faced little due to having 6 years of united govt
  • after 2006, committee chairs stood up to him more and asserted authority
133
Q

Give examples of scrutiny of Obama.

A
  • 13 separate reports into a terrorist attack in Benghazi in Libya
  • although, they were not that hard on Obama, there was a National Security Agency spying scandal in 2013 which they hardly seemed to care about.
134
Q

Give examples of scrutiny faced by Trump.

A
  • the committees investigating Russian involvement in 2016.
    -first president to by impeached twice
  • 1st impeachment was about coercing the Ukrainian govt.
  • 2nd impeachment was about inciting violence in Jan 6th riots 2021.
135
Q

How did the House vote in the 2nd impeachment of Trump?

A

232 voted to impeach
197 voted to not
10 Republicans voted against Trump

136
Q

What are the signs that suggest Clinton was effective?

A
  • economy: economy grew for 116 months, unemployment reached a 30 year low
  • civil rights: created what was the most diverse cabinet and championed LGBTQ rights - ‘don’t ask, don’t tell’ in the military
  • FP: successful in Yugoslavia, Russia and ending the Troubles.
137
Q

What are the signs that suggest Clinton was ineffective?

A

-affordable healthcare - was a top priority than never even reached Congress.

138
Q

What are the signs that suggest Bush was effective?

A
  • War on Terror: created a homeland security department
  • education reform: No Child Left Behind saw a 2% increase in spending on education for disadvantaged children
  • tax cuts: made $1.35 trillion of cuts
139
Q

What are the signs that suggest Bush was ineffective?

A
  • war on terror: Iraq was not successful
  • Education reform: No Child Left Behind did not have a huge impact
  • tax cuts: critics describe it was fiscally irresponsible
  • social security: he underestimated how difficult this would be and it never entered Congress
140
Q

What was the DREAM Act?

A

Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act - would have provided temporary residency and the right to work for immigrants who entered the USA as children. It failed to pass. He tried to pass it via and executive order which was struck down.

141
Q

What are the signs that suggest Obama was effective?

A
  • healthcare reform - passed Obamacare
  • economy - saw the USA through the financial crisis by passing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 2009
  • ending war in Iraq - withdrew troops in 2011
142
Q

What are the signs that suggest Obama was ineffective?

A
  • healthcare reform - Obama had to compromise largely on ACA in order to get more support
  • immigration reform: could not pass DREAM, tried to do it as an executive order which got struck down by US v Texas ruling 2006.
143
Q

What are the signs that suggest Trump was effective?

A
  • taxes: slashed corporate tax rates from 35% to 21% and unemployment reached the lowest level since 1969
  • immigration: policy agreements with central America reduced immigration
  • CARES Act - helped with corona relief.
144
Q

What are the signs that suggest Trump was ineffective?

A
  • taxes and jobs: Trump said GDP would rise by 6% and it was argued that tax cuts would pay for themselves which did not happen.
  • replacing Obamacare: it was too difficult and he could not dot it even with a Republican controlled Congress
  • Build a wall - only 15 miles of fencing was built
  • managing COVID 19: slow to realise the danger - said it could be cured by eating cleaning products.
145
Q

Give 5 factors that assist a president in achieving their goals.

A
  • united govt: shown by Bush
  • clear focus: Affordable Care Act 2010
  • persuasion: Patriot Act 2001 and Bush
  • ease of the aim: CARES Act 2020
  • reacting well to a crisis: war on terror
146
Q

Give 5 factors that do not assist a president in achieving their goals.

A
  • divided govt: Clinton
  • lack of focus: Trump and Obamacare
  • failure to persuade: Obama and DREAM
  • difficulty of the aim: Trump and the wall
  • reacting badly in a crisis: Trump and COVID-19
147
Q

What were Clinton’s main aims?

A
  • healthcare reform
  • economic growth
  • advancing rights and equality
  • Russia, Yugoslavia and Northern Ireland
148
Q

What were Bush’s main aims?

A
  • war on terror
  • improving education for all children
  • major tax cuts
  • allowing individuals to divert a proportion of their social security tax into personal retirement accounts
149
Q

What were Obama’s main aims?

A
  • affordable healthcare
  • solve the economic crisis
  • DREAM Act
  • ending Iraq war
150
Q

What were Trump’s main aims?

A
  • making tax cuts
  • repealing and replacing Obamacare
  • building a wall
  • provide national leadership during the COVID crisis.
151
Q

What are the similarities between the PM and the President?

A
  • has a VP and a deputy PM
  • elected
  • can initiate legislation
  • appt cabinet
152
Q

What are the differences between the PM and the President?

A
  • head of state vs head of govt
  • term limits
  • in parliament vs separation of power
  • increasing and decrease FP power
153
Q

How was relations with the legislature similar?

A
  • state of union and King’s speech
  • divided govt and may not have majority in HOL
    -budgets are scrutinised
  • impeached vs VONC
154
Q

How are relations with the legislature different?

A

-no executive members in Congress and Parliamentary govt
- no personal questioning vs PMQs
- agreement from bargaining vs discipline.
- makes appt easily vs depends on Senate

155
Q

How are relations with the cabinets different?

A
  • collective responsibility
  • parliamentary govt
  • subordinate vs equals
  • policy specialists vs generalists
156
Q

How are cabinets similar?

A
  • advisory
  • appointed
  • support
157
Q

What idea is increasing?

A

The both in the UK and the USA, power of the leader is increasing at an unacceptable rate. Although, generally power of the PM is larger.

158
Q

Outline the rational approach to comparing the PM and President.

A
  • personality impacts both
  • personally important projects tend to dominate legislation
  • they will be rationally decide who they appoint to different roles
159
Q

Outline the cultural approach to comparing the PM and President.

A

-US presidents get more respect
- cultural exceptions about the power of the leader
- both individual focus of the electoral system
- media has a great deal of weight in opinion

160
Q

Outline the structural approach to comparing the PM and President.

A
  • UK has a monarch
  • structure of govt, parliament and PM
  • can both sort of have divided govts
  • who gets appt to cabinet
  • both have extensive adminstrative support.

US Politics (5 decks)

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