Preserving the Autocracy 1855-94 Flashcards
1
Q
Which tsars reigned in these years?
A
Alexander II and Alexander III
2
Q
What liberal influences were there on Alexander II?
A
Party of St Petersburg Progress
Poet tutor
Travels around Europe
G.Duke Konstantin (Brother)
G.Duchess Pavlovna (Aunt)
Milyutin Brothers and other ministers
Opposition groups
Urban intelligentsia
3
Q
What is a Slavophile?
A
Someone who believed Russia should modernise but not in the same way that Europe had, but in a ‘distinctly Russian way’
4
Q
What were the three titles of the tsars?
A
Emperor of all the Russias, King of Congress Poland, and Grand-Duke of Finland
5
Q
What were cossacks?
A
‘Free-spirited’ horseriders from the outskirts of the empire who were often used to violently enforce the Tsar’s will (especially in the pogroms), in exchange for cultural autonomy. “Deniable muscle”
6
Q
What wars did Russia fight during this period?
A
Crimean War (53-56)
Russo-Turkish War (77-78)
7
Q
Who did Russia fight against in Crimea?
A
Ottomans, British and French
8
Q
When did Alexander II reign?
A
1855-81
9
Q
When did Alexander III reign?
A
1881-94
10
Q
What religion was Russia?
A
Russian Orthodox (Christian)
11
Q
What caused Japan’s growth in this period?
A
The Meji Rebellion modernised the country
Their army was trained by Prussians
Their navy was trained by Brits
12
Q
What was Alexander II’s epithet?
A
The Tsar-Liberator, due to his emancipation of the serfs
13
Q
What was the name of the secret police under Alexander II?
A
The Third Section
14
Q
What were the two classes in Tsarist Russia?
A
Productive Class:
-Serfs, peasants, workers, merchants etc.
-Vast majority of population
-Had to pay taxes
Non-Productive Class:
-Nobles, clergy, officers
-10% of population
-Owned 75% of land
-Tax exempt
15
Q
What is a boyar?
A
Noble
16
Q
Why was Alexander II assassinated?
A
He was not seen as modernising enough by The People’s Will
17
Q
Why did the Crimean War fail?
A
Napoleonic rifles vs modern breech-loaded rifles
Dreadful healthcare and sanitation (more died to disease)
18
Q
What was the Eastern Question?
A
What to do with the dying Ottoman Empire?
19
Q
Who were the Narodniks?
A
‘Populists’. Agrarian socialists who wanted a peasant-based system. Moderate when compared to later groups. Largely concentrated in cities, urban intelligentsia.
The movement would blend into Marxism after the work of Plekhnov
20
Q
What was going “to the people”
A
When the Narodniki went to the countryside to try to ally with peasants, whom the Narodniki considered themselves working for. They were beaten up by the conservative peasants and the Narodniki movement dissolved soon after.
21
Q
What were Alexander II and Alexander III’s tutors?
A
A2) Vasily Zhukovsky, liberal poet
A3) Konstantin Pobedonostsev, reactionary anti-semite
22
Q
What secret police did A3 set up?
A
The Okhrana
23
Q
What is a mir?
A
A peasant community
24
Q
What is a zemstva
A
A unit of peasant self-governance created by Alexander II after EotS. Power reduced under Alexander III. (zemstvo sing., zemstva pl.). Dominated by boyars - 3/4 of provincial zemstvo seats were boyars.
25
Why was the Orthodox Church so important?
Most peasants were very devout, the church strengthened the autocracy as the concept of 'divine right to rule' still existed in Russia. ("The heart of the tsar lies in the hand of God"). Church and state were very interlinked.
26
What were Alexander II's judicial reforms?
Legal proceedings had to take place in public
Everyone equal before the law
Judges were independent of the government
Jury system established
27
Who were the Milyutin Brothers?
Reformist minsters who helped modernise Russian domestically and military
Nikolay Milyutin:
-Minister of the Interior
-Architect of Alexander II's liberal reforms
-Enacted Russification campaigns in Poland after Jan Uprising
Dmitry Milyutin:
-Minister of War
-Enacted successful military reforms
-Leading figure in Circassian genocide
28
What were Alexander II's military reforms?
-Compulsory conscription (including for boyars)
-Conscription length shortened from 25 to 5 + 10 in reserves
-Less harsh punishments
-Better medical care and provisions
-Ended military colonies
-Modern equipment and structure
-Education campaigns
However:
-Officer corps still boyar-dominated
-Rich paid the poor to substitute them in the draft
29
What were Alexander II's education reforms and counter-reforms?
-Declared 'open to all' no matter class or sex
-Greater autonomy from government
-Secularisation
-Placed under control of zemstva
-'Modern schools' established as an alternative to traditional curriculums
Later placed under control of church
Schools couldn't teach science
Only students in traditional gymanzi schools could go to university
30
What was the Circassian War?
A drawn out guerrilla war between Russia and Circassians (caucasians). Ended in 1864 with the Circassian Genocide, where 0.8-1.5 million died. 95% of the population was killed or deported. Mass rape and torture, population desribed as "subhuman filth".
Circassian Genocide = Tsitsekun
31
Was Alexander II liberal or reactionary?
Started off broadly liberal (EotS & domestic reforms), became more conservative after an assassination attempt. With him showing signs of becoming more liberal in his later yaers (L-M Constitution).
32
In what ways was A2 liberal / reformist?
-Emancipation of the Serfs
-Judicial, military and educational reforms
-Willingness to surround himself with liberals
-Establishment of zemstvo system
-Consideration of Loris-Melikov proposals
33
In what ways was Alexander II conservative / reactionary?
-Deeply committed to autocracy
-Replaced liberal ministers with conservative ones (eg Tolstoy as education minister)
-Desecularised schools
-Strengthened police and secret service
-Ems Ukaz
34
What were the Loris-Melikov proposals?
A proposition for liberal reforms put forwards by Min of Internal Affairs Count Loris-Melikov proposing representatives of the people to form an advisory council. Sometimes cited as a possible first step towards a constitutional monarchy. Alexander II was killed before he could sign it and Kon Pob later shot it down.
35
What did Loris Melikov do?
Minister of Internal Affairs after Alexander II became liberal again in his later years.
Created Loris-Melikov Constitution which called for some political reform
36
What was the Ems Ukaz?
Edict issued by Alexander II while he was in Germany. It illegalised the printing of literature in Ukrainian as to squash Ukrainian nationalism.
37
What is the concept of 'All-Russia' or 'Panrussia'?
The idea that Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are part of the Russian nation.
Russia = Great Russia
Ukraine = Little Russia
Belarus = White Russia
38
How many mechanised cotton spindles did Russia and UK have by the mid-19th century?
Russia - 350,000
UK - 11,000,000
39
What was the logic behind EotS in terms of the Crimean War?
Defeat in Crimea
Western armies are better
Soliders should serve for a short period of time rather than for life
We need more people to serve shorter stints
We need to conscript more serfs
We need to give serfs rights so that they don't revolt using their military knowlege
40
How many Russians died in Crimea?
500,000
41
What percentage of Russian soldiers had muskets at the start of the Crimean War?
50%
42
How had the land ownership changed between mid 19th century and early 20th century?
In mid-19th c., nobles owned 100m hectares of land
In early-20th c., nobles owned 50m hectares of land
43
What was the January Uprising?
A Polish revolt in 1863
44
What was a volost?
A collection of mirs that would have an assembly of mir-representatives. Part of peasant self-rule.
45
What was Alexander II's role in the Circassian Genocide
He did not order it, but he authorised / gave approval for it.
46
Which areas had the most autonomy in the empire?
Poland and Finland
46
What alliance was Alexander II interested in?
The League of the Three Emperors (Russia, Germany and Aus-Hun). Fell apart over disputes in the Balkans.
47
.
.
48
What landmark legislation did Alexander III introduce?
May Laws
Statue of State Security
Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy
49
What was the Pale of Settlement?
An area in the western provinces (non-russian provinces) where Jews were allowed to live.
50
What were the May Laws
A serious of antisemitic laws passed by Alexander III a month into his reign, influenced by Pobedonostsev
Jewish businesses could not operate during Christian holidays and Sunday
Jews couldn't change their name to Christian names
All debts owed to Jews are cancelled
Restricts where Jews can live
51
What were military colonies?
Settlements of conscripted serfs and their families. Very had conditions. Abolished by Dmitry Milyutin.
52
What were the imporant opposition groups during Alexander II's reign?
People's Will
Land and Liberty / Narodnikis
Black Repartition
53
Line from Narodniks to Communist Party
Land and Liberty -> Black Repartition -> Emancipation of Labour -> Social Democrats -> Bolsheviks -> Communist Party of the Soviet Union
54
How was Lenin radicalised?
His brother (Aleksandr Ulyanov) was executed after participating in an assassination attempt on Alexander III on behalf of the People's Will
55
What is a kulak?
A wealthy, land-owning peasant
56
Who was Vyacheslav von Plehve?
Reactionary head of Okhrana under Alexander III. Encouraged war with Japan. Oversaw the rise of the Okhrana's power. Operated torture centres.
57
Why did Alexander III dislike his father?
A3 beleived that liberalisation had gotten his father killed. A3 was also very socially conservative and disagreed with his father's mistresses and second marriage.
58
What were the pogroms?
Antisemitic genocides carried out under Alexander III and Nicholas II, aided by villagers and cossacks, the government would kill thousands of Jews. Many villagers killed Jews for monetary reasons (cancel debts, remove competition etc) rather than for racial reasons.
59
What event in this period caused the most distrust in the tsarist system?
The Famine of 1891-2, 400,000 died and the government did little to help the situation
60
What were Land Captains?
Government officials created by Alexander III to "oversee" the zemstva. Land Captains could overrule decisions made by their zemstvo and were an attempt to diminish the autonomy of them.
61
What was Russification?
Campaigns carried out to assimilate minorities into the Russian way of life.
62
What reactionary policies did Alexander III implement?
May Laws
Establishment of Okhrana
Statute of State Security
Reversal of A2's judicial reforms
Establishment of political courts
Creation of Land Captains
Drafting of new university charter
More censorship
Pogroms and russification
63
What was the Statue of State Security?
Edict that strengthened and extended the powers of the state in pursuit of revolutionaries.
64
What were political courts?
Courts exclusively for "political criminals". Alexander II's judicial reforms didn't apply to these and so were heavily biased.
65
What was the new university charter?
Closed universities for women.
Restricted the number of students that could gather in one place.
Lower class couldn't get primary education
66
What is the difference between how Alexander II and III dealt with their father's detractors?
Alexander II pardoned those who revolted against his father (Decembrists)
Alexander III increased censorship, expanded the police and executed those who revolted against his father (People's Will)
67
What is Propaganda of the Deed?
The idea that if you "make a big splash" (ie assassinations, terrorism etc) that will in of itself incite revolution and increase revolutionary fervour in support of your cause
68
What is the Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy
A manifesto created by Alexander III (with help from Pobedonostsev) upon his ascension, denoucning his fahter's liberal reforms as they got in the way of the tsar's God-given 'unshakeable autocracy'
69
What was the Russo-Turkish War?
Short war against Ottoman Empire in 1878-9 over recognition for the newly independent 'brother slav' nations. (ie Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro).
Russian victory, but peace settlement was unsatisfactoryt
70
What was the Protocols of the Elders of Zion?
Viciously antisemitic book, probably written by Okhrana as a false flag, disseminated across much of the world
71
Who was Nikolai Girs?
Foreign Minister under Alexander III
Very able but gave the tsar credit for them (such as the Franco-Russian alliance, ended The Great Game, kept Russia out of war)
72
How much railway was laid under Alexander II?
30,000 km
73
A3 important trials
TRIAL OF 193:
-A series of criminal trials against revolutionaries.
-Majority of them aquitted or given light sentences
-Result of Alexander II's judicial reforms
VERA ZASULICH TRIAL:
-Assassin who killed the St Petersburg governor
-Arrested but was acquitted by sympathetic jury
-Result of Alexander II's judicial reforms.
74
What were the motives for the EotS?
Pressure from intelligentsia
Need for social, political and economic modernisation
Fears of a bottom-up rebellion
Crimean War
Peasant revolts in the Black Sea Coast
75
What was the government structure before the establishment of dumas in terms of ministries?
The tsar at the top, with ministers appointed by him. Different ministries could not contact each other, and had to operate through the tsar. Very top-down in all regards.
76
What percentage of the buget went towards the military?
45%
77
Why did the economy struggle under Tsars?
Not industrialised
Restricted entrepreneurialism
Lack of infrastructure
Almost nonexistent middle-class
Heavy taxation burden
78
What were the three main issues in the mid 19th century?
-Governance (liberalisation or conservatism)
-Land reform
-Economic development (economy holding Russia back)
79
How many serfs were emancipated?
22 million
80
.
.
81
What peace treaty ended the Crimean War?
The Treaty of Paris
82
What was Konstantin Pobedonostsev's quote on Jews?
Beat the yids, save Russia
83
How many disturbances were caused by EotS?
650 riots in the ensuing 4 months - 15,000 rioted in Bezdna
84
How many peasants could produce a surplus?
Half in 1871
85
How many peasants lived serf-like lives after EotS?
15% in 1881
86
Number of primary schools under A2?
8,000 -> 23,000
Quadrupled
87
Size of Russia
1/6 of globe's surface
88
Land allocations?
After EotS land was allocated to ex-serfs to get them competive. Some were allocated a lot and became the kulak class, others did very poorly out of it.
89
How long did redemption dues go on for?
Up to 49 years
90
Economic reforms of Alexander II
Abolished salt tax
Budget surplus in 1873
Built railways
91
Quote about the role of the tsar
"The Emperor of all the Russias is an autocratic and unlimited monarch" -Collected Laws of the Russian Empire; N1
92
Chambers of the Russian Empire
Chancellery - 35-60 boyars advising the Tsar
Council of Ministers - ~10 heads of govt departments
93
Centralisation
The central government relied heavily on provincial ministers for their support, who had not been obliged to support the Tsar for a century, but many still did
94
Bureaucracy?
14 levels of bureaucracy, corrupt and incompetent
95
.
.
96
Rural : Urban population ratio
11:1 under A2 (2:1 in UK)
97
Boyar estates
Inefficient as the lack of capitalistic competition meant boyars didn't have an incentive to make their estates more efficient.
Decreasingly profitable, as agricultural produce from Western Europe was mechanised and modern, therefore more profitable. This led to many boyars having to mortgage their estate.
98
Quote about post-Crimean reform
"Strengthen the state and restore dignity" -Dmitry Milyutin
99
Poland under A2?
Restrictions removed on Poland and the Catholic Church
January Uprising
100
Zemstvas under A3?
Kneecapped by Land Captains, placed under control of central government (depoliticised them, they started to focus more on infrastructure etc.), reduced power of the peasant vote
101
Towns under A3?
Only the richest of landed citizens could vote. Mayor and councillors made state employees, making them subject to government direction
102
Literacy rate in 1900
25%
103
Liberal reforms of Alexander III
Reduced redemption fees
Cancelled arrears of ex-serfs
Abolished poll tax
Inheritance taxes on the rich
104
Ukrainian nationalist opposition group
Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius (1840s)
105
How many serf conscripts were in the army in 1855?
1.5m
106
Why weren't zemstva very powerful under A2?
Decisions could be blocked by provincial governor
No say over taxation
74% of provincial zemstvo seats boyar controlled due to voting rules
107
Effect of A2's family on politics
Influenced liberally by G.Duke Konstantin (Brother) & G.Duchess Pavlovna (Aunt)
When his oldest son died in 1865, he consoled himself in his mistress and became more detatched from these forces
108
Judiciary counter-reforms of A3?
Established political courts
Ministry of Justice could now appoint town judges
Volost courts placed under control of Land Captains
109
Nationalist uprisings under A3?
Georgia, Uzbekistan, Armenia
110
Revolutionary book?
Catechism of a Revolutionary
-Bakunin (co-writer of Communist Manifesto, AnCom)
"His entire purpose is devoured by one purpose ... the revolution"
111
A2's Finance Minister
Mikhail Reutern
-Started industrialisation
-More indirect taxes (hurt poor)
-Subsidised railways
112
Examples of industries blooming in 1870s?
Oil extraction began in Baku
Ironworks in Donetsk
113
How much of govt spending was repaying debts?
1/3
114
What was a cause of the Great Famine 1891-92?
Vyshnegradsky's grain export (requisitioned)
"We shall not eat, we shall export" -V
115
.
.
116
Middle class and proletariat in late 19th c. numbers
500,000 m. class
2% proletarians
117
What reform was made to working conditions under A3?
Child labour restrictions
118
Strikes in late 19th c.
33 per year despite being illegal
119
Life expectancy for peasants
28
(45 in UK)
120
Liberal intelligentsia literary group
Tchaikovsky Circle - Distributed revolutionary literature in 1860s
121
Father of Russian Marxism
Plekhanov - Said that industrialisation had to preceed socialism, so revolutionaries should focus on proletarians instead of peasants
122
How many died in the Great Famine
350,000
123
When was the Emancipation Edict?
1861
124
EotS changes to peasant families
Peasants could now marry freely instead of being forced to marry by their boyars
125
Examples of A3's russification
Finnish diet weakened
Russian replaced German in Baltics
Forced mass baptisms of Muslims
126
