premise indicators Flashcards
premise indicators
because, since, for , for the reason , in that , given that , as indicated by , due to, furthermore
what is a premise?
factual statements ( contains facts) or claims
all humans are mortal . socrates is human . so Socrates is mortal
what is the premise and what is the conclusion?
socrates is mortal is the conclusion.
premise : all humans are mortal; socrates is human .
what are conclusion indicators?
thus, therefore, hence, consequently, as a result , so , accordingly, it follows that , it must be that
what questions you should ask yourself to identify premises?
why should I believe this argument?
how to identify conclusions what questions should you ask yourself ?
what does the author want me to believe
what is a stimulus ?
stimulus-reacting to what you reading , reacting to what they give you
do all stimulus have an arguments?
No, sometimes is just fact sets ,
fact sets don’t contain conclusions
what is in the prove family ?
-must be true *
-main point
-point at issue /point an agreement
-method of reasoning
- flaw in the reasoning*
-parallel reasoning
- the stimulus and the question stem is directing you to accept the truth of the stimulus and use it to prove the truth of the answer choices
what is in the disapprove family ?
-cannot be true
what is in the help family ?
assumption *
justify conclusion
strengthen / support *
-resolve the paradox
(stimulus )
-arrow going up
(answer choices)
*accept the true of the answers and if true which answer choice has a positive effect on the information in the stimulus
what is prephasing?
predicting the right answer before looking at the answer choices
-predicting what you know to be true about the correct answer
ask yourself :
what must the correct answer DO in order to be correct
what is in the hurt family ?
weaken questions
(stimulus)
arrow going up
(answer choices)
which of the answer if true has a (-) effect on the information in the stimulus
is pre phasing always possible ?
yes, but each type has a different approach. .
a good prephrase to weaken the conclusion, “Thus, we should vote for the mayor’s proposal,” would be something like, “the correct answer will give a reason why we should not vote for the mayor’s proposal.”
how to approach Prove family : must be true questions, main point, point at issue method, flaw in reasoning reasoning, and parallel reasoning
how to approach disprove family : cannot be true
the arrow in the diagram is going down. For both families Prove and disprove we accept stimulus as its given and find the answer choice that is supported by the stimuli
*for both of these families we can eliminate answer choices that introduces a new idea
how to approach assumption , justify conclusion, strengthen/support and resolve the paradox questions? (help family )
how to approach hurt family
hurt family (weaken questions)
for help family we accept the anwers and if true which answer choice has a (+) effect on the information in the stimulus
for hurt family (weaken questions)
which answer choices if true has a (-) effect on the information in the stimulus
what does OR mean? in LSAT world
or means 1 or 2 or both
what is an inference?
the result that you get when you combine different facts / ideas together (another fact)
what does some mean?
at least one
when the question ask you why is the argument bad
flaw question
when the question asks you to fix the argument
strengthen and justify questions
when the question ask you to worsening the question
weaken question
What is in family #1 ? prove
Must be true questions,
Main point
point at issue / point of agreement
method of reasoning
flaw in reasoning
Parallel reasoning
what is in family #4? disapprove
cannot be true question
for family #1 Prove and family #4 disapprove they are both similar in what aspect?
you agree with the author and accept stimulus
you can eliminate and answer choice that introduces new idea
must be true question
pick answer choice that has to be true based on what you read
must
100% true
eliminate answer choices that introduce new idea
most strongly supported questions
what is likely based on what you read
can be true - must be true
if the statements above are true , which one of the following must be true ?
must be true question
which one of the following can be properly INFERRED from the passage?
must be true question
if the information above is correct , which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it ?
must be tue question
the statements above , if true , most strongly support which one of the following
must be true
which one of the following is best illustrated by the statements above
most strongly supported question
Also must be true
Must be True questions will have the following?
properly concluded , infer
relative (comparative)
SW is the best tennis player this year
SW is better than VW
most strongly supported questions will have the following
most supported, best illustrated, could be true
Absolute(it doesn’t continue)
SW is the best tennis player
conditional reasoning is….
absolute
inferences are ?
your prephases
combine two things together to make a 3rd thing
in must be true questions we ,…..
trust the author
which one of the following most accurately restates the main point of the passage
main point question
the main point of the argument is that
main point question
ask yourself: which answer choice represents a logical equivalent of the conclusion above
An answer that the author above already concluded logical follows from premises above
which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above
main point question
ask yourself: which answer choice represents a logical equivalent of the conclusion above
what can’t be a conclusion ?
anytime a sentence supports another sentence it can’t be the conclusion
which one of the following is best illustrated by the statements above
most strongly supported questions
must be true
Most strongly support is
must be true questions
what’s is a sufficient and what is a necessary condition
*sufficient (triggers) and Necessary (Independent)
if a necessary condition occurs then….
it is possible for that the sufficient condition will occur but not certain
conditional statements are often brought up using
“if”…..then””
whenever you have a sufficient necessary statement with a must be true question type look for an answer choice that …….
contains the contrapositive
what is the main conclusion
is the statement that the arguer is trying to prove,
what is support
A claim that acts as evidence for another claim.
what is a conclusion
A claim that is backed by support.
when you see premise indicator words such as “since” “because”
they are acting as evidence for other claims so they can’t be the main conclusion
*you can eliminate those answer choices if you see them in a main conclusion questions
*since and bc are premise indicator words
what is the evidence
Also known as premises or support, the arguer provides these statements in order to show us that the conclusion is true.
conclusion and evidence example Sarah will probably receive a job offer, because she has ten years of experience
conclusion:Sarah will probably receive a job offer
evidence/support :She has ten years of experience.
*conclusions don’t have any kind of leading keyword at all
what is an intermediate conclusion
subsidiary conclusion (or “sub-conclusion” for short), this is a claim that acts both as a conclusion and as evidence
*its a conclusion that leads to another conclusion (which means it can’t be the main conclusion)
Sarah will probably receive a job offer, because she has ten years of experience. That means that she’ll soon pay me back for the money I lent her.
support: Sarah has 10 years of experience
intermediate conclusion: she’ll probably receive the job offer
conclusion: she’ll soon pay me back for the money I lent her
*conclusions don’t have to have any kind of leading keyword at all! don’t be dependent on conclusion indicator words
conclusion indicator words
Thus
Therefore
Hence
So
Conclude
It follows that
As a result
Clearly
Obviously
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
how to identify relevant evidence
how to identity premises
ask why
Why does the arguer believe [that conclusion]?”
in logical reasoning questions keep asking
why and because
signal words for evidence
Because
Since
After all
On the grounds that
Given that
For
As shown by
what is main point
main conclusion
when you are looking at a main point question be careful with ….
(thus, therefore, hence, etc.). because sometimes they act as sub conclusions and they are not the main conclusion
Florist: Some people like to have green carnations on St. Patrick’s Day. But flowers that are naturally green are extremely rare. Thus, it is very difficult for plant breeders to produce green carnations. Before St. Patrick’s Day, then, it is wise for florists to stock up on white carnations, which are fairly inexpensive and quite easy to dye green.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion of the florist’s argument? (main point question)
conclusion
Then it is wise for florist to stock up on white carnations
It is a good idea for florists to stock up on white carnations before St. Patrick’s Day.
This is the overall conclusion of the florist’s argument. We can rephrase the argument as: “Florists should stock up on white carnations before St. Patrick’s Day, because
Some people like to have green carnations on St. Patrick’s Day, but
Flowers that are naturally green are extremely rare, thus
It is very difficult for plant breeders to produce green carnations, [but]
White carnations are fairly inexpensive and quite easy to dye green.
A new process enables ordinary table salt to be fortified with iron. This advance could help reduce the high incidence of anemia in the world’s population due to a deficiency of iron in the diet. Salt is used as a preservative for food and a flavor enhancer all over the globe, and people consume salt in quantities that would provide iron in significant amounts.
identify conclusion ?
Table salt to be fortified with iron—> help reduce high incidence of anemia (to population deficiency of iron in the diet)
Prephase: fortified with iron could reduce anemia
Supported evidence : the high incidence of anemia is due to deficiency in iron
The main conclusion is Fortifying table salt with iron] could help reduce the high incidence of anemia in the world’s population due to a deficiency of iron in the diet.”
Does the position of a car driver’s seat have a significant impact on driving safety? It probably does. Driving position affects both comfort and the ability to see the road clearly. A driver who is uncomfortable eventually becomes fatigued, which makes it difficult to concentrate on the road. Likewise, the better the visibility from the driver’s seat, the more aware the driver can be of road conditions and other vehicles.
identify conclusion:
conclusion: The position of the driver makes significant impact on driving safety.
support / evidence:Because the better the visibility from the driver seat the more aware the driver can be of road conditions
The argument identifies two ways that seat position can affect safety: fatigue and visibility. The first sentence introduces the question the argument is concerned with answering, and the next states the argument’s answer to that question: seat position does impact safety. The following sentences explain and justify that claim: they act as support. Therefore, the main conclusion is that the position of the driver’s seat probably has a significant impact on driving safety.
what is the breakdown of arguments
Conclusion
[Insert conclusion here]
because
Support
[Insert the “why” reasoning here].
Other times, it may be easier to understand the argument by starting with the support:
Support
[Insert premises here]. Therefore,
Conclusion
[Insert conclusion here].
different types of conclusions
-comparison
compares two elements with each other or compares one element with itself.
example:
*it’s clear that this year’s candidate is stronger than last year’s candidate.
*It’s clear that this year’s candidate understands the public’s wishes better than she did a year ago.
Top tip: Common indicators Comparative words (better than, healthier than, more useful than) can help you identify a conclusion as a comparison.
different types of conclusions
causation
When one thing (such as an event, action, phenomenon) directly affects another, it’s a causal relationship.
example:
*Last night, I took cough medicine and today I feel much better. So that cough medicine is really effective. (Cause: cough medicine; effect: feeling better)
*Jonathan gets good grades without trying very hard, and his teachers have said multiple times how much they like him. The only possible way that Jonathan maintains his good grades is because of how much his teachers like him. (Cause: teachers liking Jonathan; effect: good grades)
Top tip: Not so fast! If someone believes something to be true because of certain facts being true, that isn’t necessarily a causal relationship. Example: My friend always calls me on Wednesdays. Therefore, she’s definitely going to call me tomorrow. There is no direct cause and effect here because there isn’t something that is directly affecting something else.
different type of conclusion
assessment
When an arguer assigns a certain subjective attribute to something (nfluenced by or based on personal beliefs or feelings) you might call it an assessment.
Examples
The flower is beautiful.
This policy is very helpful.
The outcome will be important.
Note: Scientific facts aren’t assessments “The sun is made up of several gases” is a fact; “The sun is a joyful sight” is an assessment.
different type of conclusion
recommendation
asserts<declares> the best method or course of action (or, in its negative form, recommends against a certain method or course of action).
Examples
In treating this disease, then, physicians should favor Treatment X.
It’s likely that extending the warranty is the only way to gain new customers.
Top tip: look out for common indicators Often, a keyword such as “should” or “ought to” will signal a recommendation to you, but sometimes the recommendation is implied (such as in the example about the warranty).</declares>
different type of conclusion
prediction
A prediction asserts the arguer’s opinion about something that will take place in the near or distant future.
Examples
-Obviously, the tennis match will be rescheduled.
-Our homeless population may not be reduced by next year.
-Top tip for Identify the conclusion questions If the arguer believes something will or will not happen at some point in the future, the chances are good that it’s the argument’s main conclusion.
different type of conclusion
simple beliefs
These are conclusions that are plain claims that the arguer believes to be true and that aren’t comparisons, assessments, recommendations, or predictions.
Examples
-It’s clear that the student cheated on the test.
-The thief is probably still in the house somewhere.
*These examples aren’t assessments in the sense of the word in which we’re using it—that is, to imply a subjective value judgment.
In the first example, the arguer doesn’t say or imply that the student was wrong or a bad person for cheating on the test. It’s a simple statement of something the arguer believes to be true. Likewise, in the second example, there is no value judgment about the thief, but rather a simple belief about the thief’s whereabouts.
what are definite conclusions
Definite conclusions may also be referred to as categorical conclusions. They are often signaled by keywords such as:
every
all
none
never
will
Any signal word that indicates that something is true 100% or 0% of the time can be classified as definite.
Top tip: In a match the structure or match the flaws question, the degree of the conclusion of the argument in the correct option will often match the degree of the conclusion of the argument in the passage.
Top tip: In flaw questions, definite conclusions can indicate that the arguer is overlooking other possibilities in drawing that conclusion.
indefinite conclusion is
also known as qualified conclusions. They’re often signaled by keywords:
Likelihood: likely, unlikely, possible, could, might
Quantity: some, most, more
Frequency: rarely, seldom, often, sometimes, usually
Proximity: almost, nearly
*Any signal word that indicates that something isn’t necessarily true 100% or 0% of the time can be classified as indefinite.
Assessment and simple beliefs conclusions are different in what aspect ?
In assesment the arguer assigns certain attributes to something based by their influenced, or personal beliefs or feeling
*the flower is beautiful is an example of an assessment
Simple beliefs is plain claims that an arguer beliefs to be true they are not comparisons , recommendations or predictions
Example:
it’s clear that the student cheated on the test.
-The thief is probably still in the house somewhere.
something the arguer believes to be true and there is no value of judgement but just a simple belief
difference between must be true and main point
Must be true: the answer that logically follows from the statements in the stimulus
Main point: an answer that the author above already concluded logicall follows from the premises above
must be true questions have a collection of….
FACTS
and they dont usually have a conclusion
based on the facts what can be concluded ..
a main point question
we are looking at the conclusion that was already stated
is must be true and most strongly supported questions treated the same
yes
what is a fact set
Fact sets rarely
cause a strong
reaction in the
reader because
no persuasion
is being used.
*fact sets are usually in must be true questions
because is a
premise
since
premise
for the reason ,
premise
in that ,
given that ,
premise
, as indicated by ,
premise
, due to,
premise
furthermore
premise
thus,
conclusion
hence
conclusion
therefore
conclusion indicator
, consequently,
conclusion
, as a result
conclusion
so
conclusion
accordingly,
conclusion
it follows that
conclusion
it must be that
conclusion
most strongly supported is
must be true question
Which of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? is what type of question ?
must be true question
Which of the following most strongly *supports *the argument made in the stimulus
this is a strethen / support question question (family Help)
*is asking for which answer choice supports the stimulus
family help we accept the true answers and if true which answer has a (+) effect in the info stimulus
