Prelims: Ethnicity & Nationhood

Question 1

Introduction (3)

Answer 1

Livingston: Brunanburh represents a “point of origin for English nationalism”

Outcome of Brunanburh marked the political unification of England

Maldon took place in 991 AD near Colchester, Essex between the invading Vikings and Byrhtnoth, fighting for Aethelred the unready

Question 2

Heroic / Military victory of the English (7)

Answer 2

Brunanburh

“Split shields with swords” - “heowon heathu-linde homora lafum”
–> Envelope pattern alliteration for emphasis

“Battle work” - “beadu weorce”
–> Fulfilment of heroic deeds

Maldon

“Knight” - “cniht”
“battle” - “wige”
“Spear” - “gar”
“broadsword” - “bradswurd”

E.V. Gordon: “The real subject of the poem is not the battle but the deaths and deeds of the English heroes”
–> Personal sense of heroism and englishness forged through connection with warriors

Question 3

Contrast between Maldon & Brunanburh’s presentation of events (7)

Answer 3

Brunanburh presented a top down overview of events

“Fields flowed with blood” - “Field dennode”
“There lay scores of men” - “Thaer laeg secg manig”

H.M. Chadwick: “The Brunanburh poet is not concerned with the personal adventures of the King and his brother but with the prowess of the English army as a whole”

King and his brother become anonymous in victory (“wiges hremige”) - anonymous 3rd person: more about the army as a whole and the national tenets of fraternity than any individuals.
Conversely, in Maldon brothers explicitly stated: “Godwine” and “Godweg” flee, whilst “Oswold” and “Eawold” fight on

Maldon

Evans described Maldon as highlighting the “art of the storyteller”
–> Gives a close and personal insight into the lives and actions of the characters

Eg. Byrhtnoth’s pain at being hit (line 138), Byrhtnoth’s joy at attacking an enemy (line 139) and his prayer before death : all things that would not have even be seen by comrades in battle

Question 4

Homeland vs Other (10)

Answer 4

Brunanburh

“Home” - “Hamas”
VS
“Eastan” - ‘(Enemies) from the east”

–> Reference to East draws upon cultural and literary tradition as emphasised in
The Wonders of the East
–> “Ungefraegelicu deor” (unheard of beasts), “ungefraegelicu liblac” (unheard of witchcraft)

“Hettend” - “Hated ones”
“laƿ” (“loathsome”)

Beasts of Battle used in reference to enemy
"Raven" - "Hraefn"
"Eagle" - "Earn"
"War-Hawk" - "guth-hafoc"
"Wolf" - "Wulf"

Maldon

Similarly talks of “laƿe gystas” (loathed people)

“bricge” (bridge) between the two, marking a spacial distinction between the English & the Vikings, and once Byrhtnoth lets them across, this marks his “ofermod” and the destruction of the English

“folc and foldan” - people and the land
“une eard in becomon” - our land in common (emphasis upon the inclusive pronoun before land)

Question 5

Literary & Historic legacy (10)

Answer 5

Beasts of battle (found in both Maldon & Brunanburh) used to describe vikings draws from a long literary history and heritage. Earliest known usage in Asser, whilst later utilised in Beowulf, as well as Simeon of Durham and Aethelweard who also referred to the Vikings as “lues imunda” (foul plague)

John D Niles goes further, claiming that the Beasts of Battle harks back to the Old Norse god Woden, and makes allusion to his associated animals

Evans claims that Brunanburh however is stylistically unique compared to its OE context in regards to its top down view of events and this originality provides it “unique and major importance” for OE texts
–> It also marks the seminal text in the Anglo Saxon chronicle!!

Brunanburh makes explicit reference to “old writers”
–> Metafictional awareness of the significance of a literary heritage (“Eald uthwitan”)

Maldon

Maldon has been the subject of much critical debate over whether it is purely historical or of poetic value

Stephen Harris: Is it “fiction or history, imagined or real”?

However, clear poetic & literary elements exist
–> “Gold” used as the currency offered by the Vikings for tribute when it was in fact silver that was in common usage at the time

Poet alliterates “gold” with “grið” across the caesura for poetic effect
–> grið is an old norse word meaning “peace” / “truth” that appears in poetry only in Maldon

Other poetic words include
“red”, “raedde”
“anraed”
“geraedan”

Question 6

Conclusion (1)

Answer 6

Brunanburh
“Sweordum answefede” - “Put to sleep with sword” exemplifies how texts create sense of national identity through both military feats but also through artistic feats and the development of a literary heritage