Pre-week 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Why does life depend on the liver?
A
Because liver performance a multitude of functions that are crutial for life
2
Q
What is location of the liver?
A
Inferior to diaphragm, RHS, occupies right hypochondriac & epigastric regions, extending to left hypochondriac region
3
Q
How many lobes make up the liver?
A
4, 2 major and 2 minor
4
Q
What ligament separates 2 major liver lobes?
A
Falciform ligament
5
Q
What are the two main vessels that supply blood to the liver?
A
Hepatic artery (huge oxygen supply), hepatic portal vein (huge nutrient supply).
6
Q
What are the key functions of the liver?
A
Protein metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism , lipid metabolism, breakdown & removal of defective blood, bile production, detox, storage
7
Q
What are the three lobulation patterns?
A
Classical lobule (hexagon)(bf & endocrine functions), hepatic acinus (diamond) and portal lobule (triangle)(bile flow and exocrine function).
8
Q
What are the three lobule landmarks?
A
- CT septae 2. Portal triads. 3. Central vein
9
Q
What are hepatocytes?
A
They are functional cells that form cords between sinusoids.
10
Q
What are sinusoids?
A
Sinusoids are low pressure vascular channels that receive blood from terminal branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein at the periphery of lobules and deliver it into central veins. Sinusoids are lined with endothelial cells and flanked by plates of hepatocytes.
11
Q
What are the key players relating to the microscopic features of the liver tissue?
A
- Hepatocytes 2. Kupffer cells 3. Endothelial cells 4. Sinusoids. 5. Bile canaliculus
12
Q
How do kidneys contribute toward homeostasis?
A
They regulate blood volume through retention and processing of water and electrolyte levels.
13
Q
What are the four organs that make up the renal system?
A
Kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra
14
Q
What are the key facts about the ureter?
A
They move urine from kidneys to the bladder and they are small as
15
Q
How much liquid can a bladder hold?
A
It usually holds about 400-600 mL but it can expand and hold upto 1.2 L.
16
Q
What is the type of epithelium that lines the bladder?
A
Active epithelium that contains vesicles that help the bladder expand.
17
Q
Were are the adrenal glands located?
A
On top of each kidney
18
Q
What are the 2 parts of the adrenal gland?
A
- Cortex 2. Medula
19
Q
What are the three zona of the cortex and what hormones each of them produce?
A
- Zona glomerulosa (aldosterone) 2. Zona fasciulata (cortisol) 3. Zona reticularis (sex hormones)
20
Q
What does the size of loop of henle associated with?
A
The size of the loop of henle is associated with the ability to reabsorb the water back into the blood stream. The longer the loop, the more water can be reabsorbed.
21
Q
What are the two types of nephrons?
A
Juxtamedullary nephron and cortical nephron
22
Q
What are the three functions of the nephron?
A
Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion
23
Q
What is the definition of glomerular filtration?
A
It is a nondiscriminant filtration of a protein free plasma from the glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule
24
Q
What is the main feature of blood vessels that allows for filtration?
A
They are fenestrated, meaning they have little spaces that allow for the movement of water
25
What can be used as the marker of kidney function?
Creatinine, which is a bi-product of kidney function. Essentially high levels of creatinine in blood means low kidney function
26
What is haemostasis?
Prevention of blood loss
27
What are the steps of haemostasis?
1. Vascular constriction 2. Formation of a platelet plug 3. Formation of a blood clot 4. Fibrous repair 5. Clot resolution
28
What is the difference between the activated and non-activated platelet?
Activated platelet have activated glycoproteins which cause the plated to grab on to cologen and fibrin. Non-activated platelets do not stick
29
What activates platelets?
damaged endothelium, exposed collagen, tissue factor and Von Willebrand's factor
30
What is the prostacyclin?
It is a vasodilator which helps to keep the platelets from sticking.
31
What does aspirin do?
It activates production of prostacylin thus inhibits formation of activated platelets
32
What is the difference between plasma and serum?
Plasma contains fibrogen while serum does not
33
Which pathway (intrinsic and extrinsic) is faster?
Extrinsic (only 4 steps) while interisic is slower (7 steps)
34
What are the sites of constant sodium rebasoption?
Proxima tubule (65%), Ascending Loop Henle (25%)
35
What are the variable sites of sodium rebasorbtion?
Distal tubule and collecting duct (0-10%)
36
What is the area of the nephron that loops back and sits near the glomerulus ?
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
37
What cells secrete renin?
Granular cells
38
What granular cells?
Baroreceptors
39
When is renin released?
When granular cells detect low blood pressure
40
What are the five steps of renal handling?
1. Aldosterone combines with cytoplasmic receptors. 2. Hormone-receptor complex initiates transcription 3. New protein channels and pumps are synthesised 4. Aldosterone induced proteins modification 5. Result increased Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion
41
Where is ADH (vasopressin) synthesized?
Hypothalamus
42
What detects high salt concentration?
Hypothalamus osmoreceptors
43
What detects low blood pressure due to blood loss?
Baroreceptors
44
What do ANP or BNP do?
They reduce the blood pressure in nephron by:
1. Inhibiting kidney Na+ reabsorption
2. Inhibiting the effect of RAAS
3. Dilation of afferent arterioles in glomerulus
45
Why is potassium important?
It plays a key role in membrane potential
46
What do kidneys do to combat acidosis?
Kidneys are able to detec low plasma pH, Kidneys help to secrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbons
47
What are the 2 types of cells in the distal tubule which regulate acid/base balance?
Type A intercalated cells (reabsob bicarb and potassium, secrete hydrogen ions) and Type B intercalated cells (only active alkalosis)
48
What do kidneys do to combat alkalosis?
Kidneys detec that lasma pH is too high, kidneys secrete less h+, bicarb is not reabsorbed
49
What is found in the cartilage?
Matrix and cells, collagen Type 2 and chondrocytes
50
Cartilage has no nerves or blood vesels, how do chondrocytes get nutrients?
Through perichondrium cause they have capilaries and water
51
What is the function of GAGs?
They are highly negativley chrged thus they attract water, this maintains the watery component of cartilage
52
What are the different types of cartilage?
Haline, elastic and fibrocartilage
53
What is the main difference between each type of cartilage?
Matrix composition
54
Where do we find hyaline cartilage?
Bones, long bones, specifically epiphyseal plate
55
What is the main feature of articular cartilage?
No pericondrium
56
What are two ways Growth of Hyaline Cartilage occurs?
Interstitial growth (from within) and Appositional Growth (addition of new cartilage at surface)
57
Where do we usually find elastic cartilage?
External ear and epiglottis
58
Main feature of elastic cartilage?
Elastic fibres
59
What is the main feature of fibro cartilage?
Type 1 and Type 2 collagen
60
What are the three main types of cells found in bone?
Oseoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes
61
What are the two methods of bone histology?
1. Decalcification 2. Ground bone sections
62
What are the two types of bone?
1. Cortical bone 2. Trabebecular bone
63
What are harversian systems?
Round structures in cortical bone
64
What is the connective tissue that lines the bone?
Periosteum
65
What is the name of the tissue that make up the internal cavity of the bone?
Endosteum
66
Where do we usually find red bone marrow?
Present in cavities of spongy bone
67
Where do we usually find yellow bone marrow?
Present in the medullary cavity in adult bones
68
What is the precurser cell that can become an osteoblast or an octeocyte?
Osteoprogenitor cells
69
What are osteoblasts?
Bone forming cells
70
What are osteocytes?
Osteocytes are osteoblasts that are surrounded by bone matrix
71
What are osteoclasts?
Bone resorbing cells
72
What are the four parts that make up the skull?
Calva, Cranial base, Maxilla and Mandible
73
What are the three sutures of the skull?
Coronal, mid-sagital and lambdoid
74
What are the four bones that make u p the calva?
Frontal bone, parietal bones x 2, occipital bone
75
What are anatomical features that makeup the tmj?
Temporal bone, condyle, Articular disc, Lateral Pterygoid Muscle
76
What are the primary muscles of mastication?
Masseter, medial pterygoid, temporals, lateral pterygoid, digastric
77
What makes up the masticatory system?
Teeth, bone muscles, TMJ and soft tissues
78
What is the maximum intercuspal position?
When you relax and close your jaw
79
IS overlaping during MIP (maximum intercuspal position) good?
Yes, if the maxila teeth slightly overlap the mandible teeth it is good
80
What is the name for the vertical and horizontal differences in MIP?
Vertical - overbite, horizontal - overjet
81
What are the nine steps of occlusal analysis?
1. Tooth Id 2. Tooth wear 3. Crowding, spacing, rotations. 4. Axial inclinations 5. Shape of dental arches 6. Occlusal curvatures 7. Opposing contacts 8. Anglr's mola classification 9. Mediolateral relationships
82
How can bones grow?
Only by appositional growth which is formation of new layers under the periosteum
83
What are the two types of bone formation?
Intramembranous ossification - mineralisation of matrix secreted by osteoblasts. Endochondral ossification - bone matrix deposited on cartilage matrix
84
What are the two major steps in endochondral ossification?
1. Cartilage changes 2. Ossification
85
What are the three types of movements?
Reflexive, Rhythmic, Voluntary contractions
86
What are 5 components of the reflex arc?
Receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector
87
What are the two main muscle receptors?
Muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs
88
Were are golgi tendons located?
Near tendons
89
What is the function of golgi tendon organs?
To inhibit certain reponses in order to avoid injury
90
How many mechanoreceptors are present in the periodontal ligamen?
300
91
What is a pathogen?
An agent that causes or generates disease
92
What is an antigen?
A substance that has an ability to provoke and immune response
93
What are the primary lymphatic organs & tissue
Red bone marrow and tymus
94
What are the secondary lymphatic organs?
Lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic nodules
95
What is the function of primary lymphatic organs?
Generate immune cells
96
What is the function of secondary lymphatic organs?
In line filter and immune cell activation
97
What cells are produced in the thymus?
T lymphocytes
98
What are the functions of the respiration?
1. Protection of repiratory surfaces 2. Sound production. 3. Olfactory input 4. Blood pH
99
What are the five cells present in the repiratory epithelium?
1.Pseudosratified columnar ciliated. 2. Mucous goblet 3. Brush 4. Basal 5. Small granule
100
What are type I pneumocytes?
Squamous alveolar cells, make up 95-97% of alveolar lining
101
Waht are the two types of immune response?
Innate defenses, Acquired or adaptive defenses
102
What are are the two types of innate defenses?
Surface barriers and Internal defences
103
What are the two types of adaptive defenses?
Humoral immunity and cellular immunity
104
What are the five sings of inflamation?
Redness, swelling, heat, pain, loss of function
105
What are the 5 things that can cause inflamation?
1. Infections 2. Trauma 3. Physcal & chemical agents 4. Necrosis 5. Foreign bodies
106
What is in the upper respiratory tract?
Nose, nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx
107
What is in the lower respiratory tract?
Larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs
108
What is included in the respiratory part?
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, aveoli
109
What is the function of pseudostratified columnar cell?
Mucus transport
110
What is the function of goblet cell?
Production of mucus
111
What is the function of basal cells?
General stem cell, essentially a safety thing
112
What is the function of small granule cells?
Produce hormones
113
What are the three types of bronchioles?
Larger bronchioles, terminal bronchiole, respiratory bronchiole
114
How alveoli are there in the lungs?
500 million
115
Why is surfactant important for lung function?
Pulmonary surfactant is essential for life as it lines the alveoli to lower surface tension, thereby preventing atelectasis during breathing.
116
The movement of O2
from the alveoli into the blood in the pulmonary
capillaries uses which physical process?
Passive diffusion
117
What is the form in which the majority of CO2 is transported in
the blood from the tissues to the lungs?
In solution as bicarbonate (HCO3
| -)
118
What does the kidney do?
Regulate BP, balance of electrolytes and salt and pH
119
What are the components of the urinary system?
Kidneys, uterer, urethra, bladder
120
What muscle is in the uterer walls?
Smooth
121
What are sphincter?
Muscle that don't let the fluid pass through
122
What epithelial cells are in the bladder?
Active
123
What zone secretes aldosterone?
Glomerulosa
124
What zone secretes cortosol?
Fasciulation
125
What zona secretes sex hormones?
Reticularis
126
What are the components of the nephron?
Tubular and vascular
127
What is the glomerulus?
A bundle of capilaries
128
What is the primary pressure used in the glomerulus?
Hydrostatic
129
How does the blood enter the glomerulus?
Afferent artiole and exits through efferent.
130
What secretes renin?
Macula densa cells and granular cells
131
What does RAAS stand for?
Renin, angiotensin, angiotensis 2, Aldosterone
132
What can pass through the fenestrations of blood vessels?
Ions, water, glucose, amino acids and other.
133
Can large proteins and blood cells pass through fenestrations?
No due to their size
134
Why is the afferent arteriole larger?
Due to it muscular components, which help to increase capaillary pressure in the capilaries
135
What are the three layers that a filtrae needs to pass to get to the Bowman's capsule?
Fenestrations, basement membrane, Bowman's capsule podocytes
136
What is GFR?
Glomerular filtration rate, the speed at which we form filtrate, normal is about 125ml/min
137
What is myogenic mechanism?
It is automatic contraction of muscle in response to stretch of blood flow
138
What is tubular glomerular feedback?
It is a process in which macula densa cells defect changes of filtrae flow, and delivery of Na+ and Cl- through the distal tubule
139
What do podocytes do?
They control the leakiness into the bowman's capsule
140
What are peritubular capilaries?
They are capilaries that run adjacent to the tubular component of the nephron and collect plasma and other materials
141
What is the main difference in terms of energy expenditure between reabsorbtion and secretion?
Secretion always uses energy, while absorption does not
142
How much sodium and water is absorbed in the proximal tubule?
65%
143
Where does reabsorbion of materials regulated by the body?
Distal tubule, collecting duct
144
What happens to the epithelium as it progresses into the lungs?
It gets simpler and smaller
145
What epithelium is in the nose?
Pseudostratified columnar ciliated with gobler cells
146
What are the functions of the upper respiratory tract?
Moister, warm, trap dust, move trapped particles
147
What epithelium is in the broncioles?
Cuboidal
148
What is the function of club cells?
Protection and surfacant release
149
What are the three layers of gas exchange?
Epithelial, bsement mebrane and endothelial
150
What are 3 important pressure for respiration?
Diaphragm and gternocleiodmastioid
151
What are the muscles of expiration?
Abdominal and intercoastal
152
What are the two determinators of lung compliance?
Elastic connectibe tissue, surface tension of liquid fol lining alveoli
153
What are the forces that keep the laveoler open?
Transmural pressure gradient, pulmanary surfacant
154
What force promoting the alveolar collapse?
Elastic fibres, alveolar surface tension
155
What are APC?
APCs are antigen presenting cells, they present an antigen to other immune cells
156
What is an anti-body?
It is a receptor on the APC which helps with antigen-binding
157
What are three functions of the anti-body?
Block, tag, activate
158
Where is Pre-t cell produced?
Red bone marrow and differentiate in the thymus?
159
What does maturation mean?
When a B or T lymphocyte aquires receptors
160
What are cytokines?
Cytokines are a category of signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation and hematopoiesis.
161
What is the function of red pulp?
Removal of old, damaged and dead red blood cells along with antigens and microorganisms - the venous sinuses have gaps in the endothelial lining which allows normal cells to pass through, abnormal cells remain in the cords and are phagocytosed by macrophages.
162
What is the function of white pulp?
Antigen presenting cells may enter the white pulp, resulting in activation of the T-lymphocytes stored there.
163
What is MALT?
The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
164
What are the three types of tonsils?
Technically, there are three sets of tonsils in the body: the pharyngeal tonsils, commonly known as adenoids, the palatine tonsils and the lingual tonsils, which are lymphatic tissue on the surface tissue of the base of the tongue, according to Encyclopedia Britannica.
165
What produces angiotensinogen?
Liver
166
What produces renin?
KIdney
