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BDS 1 Semester 2 > Pre-week 1 > Flashcards

Pre-week 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Why does life depend on the liver?

A

Because liver performance a multitude of functions that are crutial for life

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2
Q

What is location of the liver?

A

Inferior to diaphragm, RHS, occupies right hypochondriac & epigastric regions, extending to left hypochondriac region

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3
Q

How many lobes make up the liver?

A

4, 2 major and 2 minor

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4
Q

What ligament separates 2 major liver lobes?

A

Falciform ligament

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5
Q

What are the two main vessels that supply blood to the liver?

A

Hepatic artery (huge oxygen supply), hepatic portal vein (huge nutrient supply).

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6
Q

What are the key functions of the liver?

A

Protein metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism , lipid metabolism, breakdown & removal of defective blood, bile production, detox, storage

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7
Q

What are the three lobulation patterns?

A

Classical lobule (hexagon)(bf & endocrine functions), hepatic acinus (diamond) and portal lobule (triangle)(bile flow and exocrine function).

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8
Q

What are the three lobule landmarks?

A
  1. CT septae 2. Portal triads. 3. Central vein
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9
Q

What are hepatocytes?

A

They are functional cells that form cords between sinusoids.

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10
Q

What are sinusoids?

A

Sinusoids are low pressure vascular channels that receive blood from terminal branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein at the periphery of lobules and deliver it into central veins. Sinusoids are lined with endothelial cells and flanked by plates of hepatocytes.

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11
Q

What are the key players relating to the microscopic features of the liver tissue?

A
  1. Hepatocytes 2. Kupffer cells 3. Endothelial cells 4. Sinusoids. 5. Bile canaliculus
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12
Q

How do kidneys contribute toward homeostasis?

A

They regulate blood volume through retention and processing of water and electrolyte levels.

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13
Q

What are the four organs that make up the renal system?

A

Kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra

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14
Q

What are the key facts about the ureter?

A

They move urine from kidneys to the bladder and they are small as

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15
Q

How much liquid can a bladder hold?

A

It usually holds about 400-600 mL but it can expand and hold upto 1.2 L.

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16
Q

What is the type of epithelium that lines the bladder?

A

Active epithelium that contains vesicles that help the bladder expand.

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17
Q

Were are the adrenal glands located?

A

On top of each kidney

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18
Q

What are the 2 parts of the adrenal gland?

A
  1. Cortex 2. Medula
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19
Q

What are the three zona of the cortex and what hormones each of them produce?

A
  1. Zona glomerulosa (aldosterone) 2. Zona fasciulata (cortisol) 3. Zona reticularis (sex hormones)
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20
Q

What does the size of loop of henle associated with?

A

The size of the loop of henle is associated with the ability to reabsorb the water back into the blood stream. The longer the loop, the more water can be reabsorbed.

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21
Q

What are the two types of nephrons?

A

Juxtamedullary nephron and cortical nephron

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22
Q

What are the three functions of the nephron?

A

Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion

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23
Q

What is the definition of glomerular filtration?

A

It is a nondiscriminant filtration of a protein free plasma from the glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule

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24
Q

What is the main feature of blood vessels that allows for filtration?

A

They are fenestrated, meaning they have little spaces that allow for the movement of water

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25
Q

What can be used as the marker of kidney function?

A

Creatinine, which is a bi-product of kidney function. Essentially high levels of creatinine in blood means low kidney function

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26
Q

What is haemostasis?

A

Prevention of blood loss

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27
Q

What are the steps of haemostasis?

A
  1. Vascular constriction 2. Formation of a platelet plug 3. Formation of a blood clot 4. Fibrous repair 5. Clot resolution
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28
Q

What is the difference between the activated and non-activated platelet?

A

Activated platelet have activated glycoproteins which cause the plated to grab on to cologen and fibrin. Non-activated platelets do not stick

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29
Q

What activates platelets?

A

damaged endothelium, exposed collagen, tissue factor and Von Willebrand’s factor

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30
Q

What is the prostacyclin?

A

It is a vasodilator which helps to keep the platelets from sticking.

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31
Q

What does aspirin do?

A

It activates production of prostacylin thus inhibits formation of activated platelets

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32
Q

What is the difference between plasma and serum?

A

Plasma contains fibrogen while serum does not

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33
Q

Which pathway (intrinsic and extrinsic) is faster?

A

Extrinsic (only 4 steps) while interisic is slower (7 steps)

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34
Q

What are the sites of constant sodium rebasoption?

A

Proxima tubule (65%), Ascending Loop Henle (25%)

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35
Q

What are the variable sites of sodium rebasorbtion?

A

Distal tubule and collecting duct (0-10%)

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36
Q

What is the area of the nephron that loops back and sits near the glomerulus ?

A

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

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37
Q

What cells secrete renin?

A

Granular cells

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38
Q

What granular cells?

A

Baroreceptors

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39
Q

When is renin released?

A

When granular cells detect low blood pressure

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40
Q

What are the five steps of renal handling?

A
  1. Aldosterone combines with cytoplasmic receptors. 2. Hormone-receptor complex initiates transcription 3. New protein channels and pumps are synthesised 4. Aldosterone induced proteins modification 5. Result increased Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion
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41
Q

Where is ADH (vasopressin) synthesized?

A

Hypothalamus

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42
Q

What detects high salt concentration?

A

Hypothalamus osmoreceptors

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43
Q

What detects low blood pressure due to blood loss?

A

Baroreceptors

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44
Q

What do ANP or BNP do?

A

They reduce the blood pressure in nephron by:

  1. Inhibiting kidney Na+ reabsorption
  2. Inhibiting the effect of RAAS
  3. Dilation of afferent arterioles in glomerulus
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45
Q

Why is potassium important?

A

It plays a key role in membrane potential

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46
Q

What do kidneys do to combat acidosis?

A

Kidneys are able to detec low plasma pH, Kidneys help to secrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbons

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47
Q

What are the 2 types of cells in the distal tubule which regulate acid/base balance?

A

Type A intercalated cells (reabsob bicarb and potassium, secrete hydrogen ions) and Type B intercalated cells (only active alkalosis)

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48
Q

What do kidneys do to combat alkalosis?

A

Kidneys detec that lasma pH is too high, kidneys secrete less h+, bicarb is not reabsorbed

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49
Q

What is found in the cartilage?

A

Matrix and cells, collagen Type 2 and chondrocytes

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50
Q

Cartilage has no nerves or blood vesels, how do chondrocytes get nutrients?

A

Through perichondrium cause they have capilaries and water

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51
Q

What is the function of GAGs?

A

They are highly negativley chrged thus they attract water, this maintains the watery component of cartilage

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52
Q

What are the different types of cartilage?

A

Haline, elastic and fibrocartilage

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53
Q

What is the main difference between each type of cartilage?

A

Matrix composition

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54
Q

Where do we find hyaline cartilage?

A

Bones, long bones, specifically epiphyseal plate

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55
Q

What is the main feature of articular cartilage?

A

No pericondrium

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56
Q

What are two ways Growth of Hyaline Cartilage occurs?

A

Interstitial growth (from within) and Appositional Growth (addition of new cartilage at surface)

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57
Q

Where do we usually find elastic cartilage?

A

External ear and epiglottis

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58
Q

Main feature of elastic cartilage?

A

Elastic fibres

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59
Q

What is the main feature of fibro cartilage?

A

Type 1 and Type 2 collagen

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60
Q

What are the three main types of cells found in bone?

A

Oseoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes

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61
Q

What are the two methods of bone histology?

A
  1. Decalcification 2. Ground bone sections
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62
Q

What are the two types of bone?

A
  1. Cortical bone 2. Trabebecular bone
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63
Q

What are harversian systems?

A

Round structures in cortical bone

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64
Q

What is the connective tissue that lines the bone?

A

Periosteum

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65
Q

What is the name of the tissue that make up the internal cavity of the bone?

A

Endosteum

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66
Q

Where do we usually find red bone marrow?

A

Present in cavities of spongy bone

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67
Q

Where do we usually find yellow bone marrow?

A

Present in the medullary cavity in adult bones

68
Q

What is the precurser cell that can become an osteoblast or an octeocyte?

A

Osteoprogenitor cells

69
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

Bone forming cells

70
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

Osteocytes are osteoblasts that are surrounded by bone matrix

71
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

Bone resorbing cells

72
Q

What are the four parts that make up the skull?

A

Calva, Cranial base, Maxilla and Mandible

73
Q

What are the three sutures of the skull?

A

Coronal, mid-sagital and lambdoid

74
Q

What are the four bones that make u p the calva?

A

Frontal bone, parietal bones x 2, occipital bone

75
Q

What are anatomical features that makeup the tmj?

A

Temporal bone, condyle, Articular disc, Lateral Pterygoid Muscle

76
Q

What are the primary muscles of mastication?

A

Masseter, medial pterygoid, temporals, lateral pterygoid, digastric

77
Q

What makes up the masticatory system?

A

Teeth, bone muscles, TMJ and soft tissues

78
Q

What is the maximum intercuspal position?

A

When you relax and close your jaw

79
Q

IS overlaping during MIP (maximum intercuspal position) good?

A

Yes, if the maxila teeth slightly overlap the mandible teeth it is good

80
Q

What is the name for the vertical and horizontal differences in MIP?

A

Vertical - overbite, horizontal - overjet

81
Q

What are the nine steps of occlusal analysis?

A
  1. Tooth Id 2. Tooth wear 3. Crowding, spacing, rotations. 4. Axial inclinations 5. Shape of dental arches 6. Occlusal curvatures 7. Opposing contacts 8. Anglr’s mola classification 9. Mediolateral relationships
82
Q

How can bones grow?

A

Only by appositional growth which is formation of new layers under the periosteum

83
Q

What are the two types of bone formation?

A

Intramembranous ossification - mineralisation of matrix secreted by osteoblasts. Endochondral ossification - bone matrix deposited on cartilage matrix

84
Q

What are the two major steps in endochondral ossification?

A
  1. Cartilage changes 2. Ossification
85
Q

What are the three types of movements?

A

Reflexive, Rhythmic, Voluntary contractions

86
Q

What are 5 components of the reflex arc?

A

Receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector

87
Q

What are the two main muscle receptors?

A

Muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs

88
Q

Were are golgi tendons located?

A

Near tendons

89
Q

What is the function of golgi tendon organs?

A

To inhibit certain reponses in order to avoid injury

90
Q

How many mechanoreceptors are present in the periodontal ligamen?

A

300

91
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

An agent that causes or generates disease

92
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A substance that has an ability to provoke and immune response

93
Q

What are the primary lymphatic organs & tissue

A

Red bone marrow and tymus

94
Q

What are the secondary lymphatic organs?

A

Lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic nodules

95
Q

What is the function of primary lymphatic organs?

A

Generate immune cells

96
Q

What is the function of secondary lymphatic organs?

A

In line filter and immune cell activation

97
Q

What cells are produced in the thymus?

A

T lymphocytes

98
Q

What are the functions of the respiration?

A
  1. Protection of repiratory surfaces 2. Sound production. 3. Olfactory input 4. Blood pH
99
Q

What are the five cells present in the repiratory epithelium?

A

1.Pseudosratified columnar ciliated. 2. Mucous goblet 3. Brush 4. Basal 5. Small granule

100
Q

What are type I pneumocytes?

A

Squamous alveolar cells, make up 95-97% of alveolar lining

101
Q

Waht are the two types of immune response?

A

Innate defenses, Acquired or adaptive defenses

102
Q

What are are the two types of innate defenses?

A

Surface barriers and Internal defences

103
Q

What are the two types of adaptive defenses?

A

Humoral immunity and cellular immunity

104
Q

What are the five sings of inflamation?

A

Redness, swelling, heat, pain, loss of function

105
Q

What are the 5 things that can cause inflamation?

A
  1. Infections 2. Trauma 3. Physcal & chemical agents 4. Necrosis 5. Foreign bodies
106
Q

What is in the upper respiratory tract?

A

Nose, nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx

107
Q

What is in the lower respiratory tract?

A

Larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs

108
Q

What is included in the respiratory part?

A

Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, aveoli

109
Q

What is the function of pseudostratified columnar cell?

A

Mucus transport

110
Q

What is the function of goblet cell?

A

Production of mucus

111
Q

What is the function of basal cells?

A

General stem cell, essentially a safety thing

112
Q

What is the function of small granule cells?

A

Produce hormones

113
Q

What are the three types of bronchioles?

A

Larger bronchioles, terminal bronchiole, respiratory bronchiole

114
Q

How alveoli are there in the lungs?

A

500 million

115
Q

Why is surfactant important for lung function?

A

Pulmonary surfactant is essential for life as it lines the alveoli to lower surface tension, thereby preventing atelectasis during breathing.

116
Q

The movement of O2
from the alveoli into the blood in the pulmonary
capillaries uses which physical process?

A

Passive diffusion

117
Q

What is the form in which the majority of CO2 is transported in
the blood from the tissues to the lungs?

A

In solution as bicarbonate (HCO3

-)

118
Q

What does the kidney do?

A

Regulate BP, balance of electrolytes and salt and pH

119
Q

What are the components of the urinary system?

A

Kidneys, uterer, urethra, bladder

120
Q

What muscle is in the uterer walls?

A

Smooth

121
Q

What are sphincter?

A

Muscle that don’t let the fluid pass through

122
Q

What epithelial cells are in the bladder?

A

Active

123
Q

What zone secretes aldosterone?

A

Glomerulosa

124
Q

What zone secretes cortosol?

A

Fasciulation

125
Q

What zona secretes sex hormones?

A

Reticularis

126
Q

What are the components of the nephron?

A

Tubular and vascular

127
Q

What is the glomerulus?

A

A bundle of capilaries

128
Q

What is the primary pressure used in the glomerulus?

A

Hydrostatic

129
Q

How does the blood enter the glomerulus?

A

Afferent artiole and exits through efferent.

130
Q

What secretes renin?

A

Macula densa cells and granular cells

131
Q

What does RAAS stand for?

A

Renin, angiotensin, angiotensis 2, Aldosterone

132
Q

What can pass through the fenestrations of blood vessels?

A

Ions, water, glucose, amino acids and other.

133
Q

Can large proteins and blood cells pass through fenestrations?

A

No due to their size

134
Q

Why is the afferent arteriole larger?

A

Due to it muscular components, which help to increase capaillary pressure in the capilaries

135
Q

What are the three layers that a filtrae needs to pass to get to the Bowman’s capsule?

A

Fenestrations, basement membrane, Bowman’s capsule podocytes

136
Q

What is GFR?

A

Glomerular filtration rate, the speed at which we form filtrate, normal is about 125ml/min

137
Q

What is myogenic mechanism?

A

It is automatic contraction of muscle in response to stretch of blood flow

138
Q

What is tubular glomerular feedback?

A

It is a process in which macula densa cells defect changes of filtrae flow, and delivery of Na+ and Cl- through the distal tubule

139
Q

What do podocytes do?

A

They control the leakiness into the bowman’s capsule

140
Q

What are peritubular capilaries?

A

They are capilaries that run adjacent to the tubular component of the nephron and collect plasma and other materials

141
Q

What is the main difference in terms of energy expenditure between reabsorbtion and secretion?

A

Secretion always uses energy, while absorption does not

142
Q

How much sodium and water is absorbed in the proximal tubule?

A

65%

143
Q

Where does reabsorbion of materials regulated by the body?

A

Distal tubule, collecting duct

144
Q

What happens to the epithelium as it progresses into the lungs?

A

It gets simpler and smaller

145
Q

What epithelium is in the nose?

A

Pseudostratified columnar ciliated with gobler cells

146
Q

What are the functions of the upper respiratory tract?

A

Moister, warm, trap dust, move trapped particles

147
Q

What epithelium is in the broncioles?

A

Cuboidal

148
Q

What is the function of club cells?

A

Protection and surfacant release

149
Q

What are the three layers of gas exchange?

A

Epithelial, bsement mebrane and endothelial

150
Q

What are 3 important pressure for respiration?

A

Diaphragm and gternocleiodmastioid

151
Q

What are the muscles of expiration?

A

Abdominal and intercoastal

152
Q

What are the two determinators of lung compliance?

A

Elastic connectibe tissue, surface tension of liquid fol lining alveoli

153
Q

What are the forces that keep the laveoler open?

A

Transmural pressure gradient, pulmanary surfacant

154
Q

What force promoting the alveolar collapse?

A

Elastic fibres, alveolar surface tension

155
Q

What are APC?

A

APCs are antigen presenting cells, they present an antigen to other immune cells

156
Q

What is an anti-body?

A

It is a receptor on the APC which helps with antigen-binding

157
Q

What are three functions of the anti-body?

A

Block, tag, activate

158
Q

Where is Pre-t cell produced?

A

Red bone marrow and differentiate in the thymus?

159
Q

What does maturation mean?

A

When a B or T lymphocyte aquires receptors

160
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Cytokines are a category of signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation and hematopoiesis.

161
Q

What is the function of red pulp?

A

Removal of old, damaged and dead red blood cells along with antigens and microorganisms - the venous sinuses have gaps in the endothelial lining which allows normal cells to pass through, abnormal cells remain in the cords and are phagocytosed by macrophages.

162
Q

What is the function of white pulp?

A

Antigen presenting cells may enter the white pulp, resulting in activation of the T-lymphocytes stored there.

163
Q

What is MALT?

A

The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

164
Q

What are the three types of tonsils?

A

Technically, there are three sets of tonsils in the body: the pharyngeal tonsils, commonly known as adenoids, the palatine tonsils and the lingual tonsils, which are lymphatic tissue on the surface tissue of the base of the tongue, according to Encyclopedia Britannica.

165
Q

What produces angiotensinogen?

A

Liver

166
Q

What produces renin?

A

KIdney

BDS 1 Semester 2 (12 decks)

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