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BIO 331 > Pre-Midterm > Flashcards

Pre-Midterm Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is phyisology

A

branch of biology relating to the function of organs and organ systems, and how they work within the biological body to respond to challenges

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2
Q

Plant Physiology

A

The study of how different parts of plants function for many aspects of plant life.

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3
Q

Translocation in the Phloem

A

Source to sink

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4
Q

Chloroplast

A

powerhouse for plant life

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5
Q

C4 Photosynthesis

A

A CO2 pump, fast photosynthesis of C4 plants under high light intensity and high temperature

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6
Q

Phytohormones

A

regulation of many aspects in all stages of the plant life cycle

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7
Q

Water balance

A

important properties of water molecules
How to pull water through the xylem
Water potential

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8
Q

Movement of water in plants

A

water moves from soil to root
water gets through the root
water moves up through the xylem
water moves from leaf to air

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9
Q

History- the study of plant water relations

A

Malpighi and Grew (1670-1680s)
Observations of plant conducting tissues
They found out plant structures which are similar to animal vasculature

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10
Q

Important properties of water

A

water is cohesive
water is an excellent solvent
water can dissociate into ions
water has a high latent heat of vaporization
Water has a high tensile strength

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11
Q

Water is cohesive

A

No net charge to a water molecule, however electronegative

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12
Q

Electronegative

A

Attract the electrons of the covalent bond

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13
Q

Hydrogen bonding and polar structures

A

Good solvents for ionic substances, sugar and proteins

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14
Q

Water has a high latent heat of vaporization

A

The heat required to change one mole of liquid at its boiling point under standard atmospheric pressure
44 kJ needed to cause 1 mole water to go from liquid to vapor state

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15
Q

Tensile strength

A

Ability to resist a pulling force of molecules before breaking their bonds

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16
Q

Cohesion

A

a molecule is attracted to the same molecule

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17
Q

Adhesion

A

a molecule is attracted to the other type of substances

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18
Q

Surface tension

A

the property of liquid surfaces which allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules

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19
Q

How do plants bring water from the roots to the shoots?

A

Capillary action (Capillarity)

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20
Q

Water potential in Plants

A

Ability of water molecule to move freely in solution
Measurement of the potential energy in water

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21
Q

Water movement

A

high to low water potential

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22
Q

Chemical potential

A

Quantitative expression of the free energy associated with a substance

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23
Q

Water potential consists of 3 components

A

Solute potential
Pressure potential
Gravity potential

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24
Q

The major factors influencing the water potential in plants

A

Concentration
Pressure
Gravity

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25
Q

-sign for solute potential

A

Reduction of the water potential dissolved solutes

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26
Q

Pressure potential

A

effect of hydrostatic potential

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27
Q

Turgor pressure

A

+ hydrostatic pressure within cells (pressure potential >0 MPa)
Supports plants cells and tissues
water limitation lowers turgor pressure

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28
Q

Tension

A
  • hydrostatic pressure, frequently develop in xylem
    Pressure potential <0 MPa
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29
Q

Gravity potential in plants

A

plant height is generally to short for gravity potential to make a difference with water potential
Unless it is something tall like trees

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30
Q

Why is water potential important?

A

Cell growth, photosynthesis and crop productivity are highly influenced by water potential

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31
Q

Scholander pressure chamber

A

The pressure chamber method for measuring plant water potential

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32
Q

How to pull water through the xylem:

A

Cohesion, adhesion and surface tension

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33
Q

Water potential

A

Ability of water molecule to move freely in solution

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34
Q

Important mechanisms for water movement in plants

A

osmosis “water follows sugar”
Turgor pressure and plasmolysis

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35
Q

Solute potential

A

The solute potential is reduced when solutes are added to an aqeuous system
Water moves from 0 to negative number

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36
Q

Osmosis

A

phenomenon of water flow across a semi-permeable membrane
Sucrose cannot pass through the membrane, water moves across membranes
Important for water movement in plants, water borrows sugar, water follows sugar

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37
Q

Equilibrium

A

Water stop moving across membranes

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38
Q

Water potential =0

A

Pure water

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39
Q

Resistance of cell wall to deformation

A

Rigidity of plant cell wall to prevent the osmotic lysis by hydrostatic pressure (turgor pressure)

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40
Q

Plasmolysis

A

if water is moving out of the cell

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41
Q

Cell Inside: Hypotonic

A

Cell outside: hypertonic
Plasmolyzed
Water is moving outside of the cell
Solute potential outside of cell < solute potential cell inside

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42
Q

Cell inside: isotonic

A

Cell outside: isotonic
Flaccid
Solute potential cell outside is equal to solute potential cell inside

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43
Q

Cell inside: hypertonic

A

Cell outside: hypotonic
Turgid
Water moving into the cell
Solute potential cell outside > solute potential cell inside

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44
Q

Turgor pressure (osmotic pressure)

A

pressure from fluid within the cell pushing against the cell wall

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45
Q

How do water molecule move across plasma membrane

A

water channels

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46
Q

How do water molecules go through aquaporins?

A

Expression of an aquaporin in an Xenopus oocyte accelerates water uptake

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47
Q

Thermodynamic gradients

A

First response to solute potential gradient
Intermediate response to solute potential gradient
Late response to solute potential gradient
Equilibrium situation

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48
Q

First response to solute potential gradient

A

Water diffuses from pore orifice
water pulled thru channel by cohesion

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49
Q

Intermediate response to solute potential gradient

A

Water diffuses from pore orifice
Water pulled thru channel by cohesion
Pressure potential increases in cytoplasm

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50
Q

Late response to solute potential gradient

A

water diffuses from pore orifice
Water pulled thru channel by cohesion
Pressure potential increases in cytoplasm

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51
Q

Equilibrium situation

A

Pressure potential increased to balance solute potential
Equilibrium between cells
No NET flux of water across channel

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52
Q

Tetrameric arrangement (tetramer)

A

each monomer forms a water channel

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53
Q

Phosphorylation and pH

A

Modify aquaporin channel activity

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54
Q

How to stop osmosis

A

You need hydrostatic pressure

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55
Q

Diffusion

A

water movement during transpiration

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56
Q

Transpiration

A

Evaporation of water mainly through the stomata of leaves

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57
Q

Movement of water in plants (steps)

A
  1. Osmosis
  2. Bulf flow
  3. Bulk flow
  4. Diffusion
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58
Q

Diffusion rate is affected by

A

Area, distance and gradient

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59
Q

Surface tension

A

Enhancement of intermolecular attractive forces at the surface

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60
Q

Water movement through the leaf

A

1) Stomata open
2)Water vapor Diffueses from internal air space, down it concentration gradient, into the air
3) Net loss of water vapor causes air-water- interface to recede towards outer microfibrils
3)Establishment of water gradient begins when the air-water-interface touches outer microfibrils
4)H-Bonding/Cohesion transmits tension at surface to bulk water
5) Time dependent buildup of surface tension
6) Water is pulled towards air-water-interface

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61
Q

Analysis of pathway water flow

A

Apoplasmic (Apoplastic) pathway
Symplasmic (Symplastic) pathway
Transcellular pathway

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62
Q

Apoplasmic (Apoplastic) pathway

A

Never goes into the plant cell
Water moves through the intercellular spaces (e.g. cell walls) with no entry into cells
No resistance

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63
Q

Symplasmic (symplastic) pathway

A

First moves into cell through PM
Water moves through the cells via plasmodesmata
Some resistance

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64
Q

Transcellular pathway

A

Water moves across the plasma membrane
Passes through all of the membranes (vacuole membrane)

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65
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

microchannel connecting between plant cells through the cell wall, small channel that allows movement through cell walls to other cells

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66
Q

Tracheids

A

Primitive water-conducting elements
Present in gymnosperms and angiosperms
Cell size species dependent (is small)
Long, thin cells with tapered ends
Walls reinforced with lignin (support)

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67
Q

Gymnosperm

A

naked seed

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68
Q

Angiosperm

A

seed is covered

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69
Q

Pit pair

A

two pits occurring opposite one another in the walls of adjacent tracheid or vessel elements

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70
Q

Vessels

A

Advanced water-conducting elements
Present only in the angiosperms
One vessel-

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71
Q

Pits

A

effective combination of primary anf secondary walls

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72
Q

Caviation

A

a condition where in an air bubble moves into a vessel or tracheids

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73
Q

Embolism

A

the blocking of a xylem vessel or tracheid by an air bubble or cavity (xylem blocked)

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74
Q

Embolisms spread

A

from conduit to conduit; a pathway connecting the embolized vessels is shown in yellow

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75
Q

Embolized xylem vessel

A

No longer hold water
decrease xylem hydraulic conductance

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76
Q

Tensile strength

A

ability to resist a pulling force of molecules before breaking their bonds

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77
Q

Cohesion theory

A

the tensile strength of water is high enough to allow water to be pulled through the Treachiary elements

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78
Q

Xylem is vulnerable to

A

Cavitation (embolism)

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79
Q

Embolized xylem vessel;

A

no longer hold water
decrease xylem hydraulic conductance

80
Q

Soil particle size affects

A

water movement
water retention

81
Q

Large pore space

A

Gravitational pull
(sandy soil)

82
Q

Small pore space

A

Capillary action
Clayey soil

83
Q

Saturated soil

A

All pores are full of water
Gravitational water is lost

84
Q

After drainage in soil

A

Field capacity
available water for plant growth

85
Q

After drying in soil

A

Wilting point no more water available to plants

86
Q

The type of soil particle affects

A

Soil interactions with water

87
Q

Other factors of soil interaction with water

A

Organic matter, microbes, salinity, etc

88
Q

Root architecture

A

Length of roots, branching, angle

89
Q

Root architecture is affected by

A

water flow into roots

90
Q

Shallow root systems

A

Effective at catching limited rainfall, things like winter wheat

91
Q

Hydrotropism

A

root growth in response to water deficit

92
Q

Gravity dominates the root growth in

A

Water sufficient environment

93
Q

The root can exhibit hydrotropic growth

A

growth towards water

94
Q

Osmosis

A

water uptake from soil to the roots

95
Q

Root pressure

A

Positive pressure that forms in the root as the roots uptake water from the soil by osmosis

96
Q

Apoplasmic pathways

A

movement through cell walls, except when crossing endodermis

97
Q

Symplasmic pathway

A

Movement through cytoplasm and plasmodesmata

98
Q

Transcellular pathway

A

water crosses plasma membrane and parallel with movement through plasmodesmata

99
Q

Epidermis

A

Production of root hairs which project into the soil increasing surface for water and nutrient uptake

100
Q

Casparian strip forces

A

water to cross a plasma membrane

101
Q

Casparian strip is made of

A

lignin

102
Q

Suberin

A

Cell wall- associated biopolymer found in endodermis

103
Q

Role of suberized endodermis in the roots

A

decreasing the water permeability
xylem tensions extending further into the root system

104
Q

Water movement through the plant like a

A

tug of war

105
Q

Radial and axial conductance

A

importance of water flow through roots

106
Q

Radial conductance

A

From soil to stele

107
Q

Radial conductance is affected by

A

Anatomy, morphology, cell wall permeability, activity of water channels, etc.

108
Q

Axial conductance

A

through the xylem

109
Q

Axial conductance is affected by;

A

Number, diameter and structure of the xylem conduits, formation of embolisms etc

110
Q

Root pressure and guttation

A

positive pressure is generated by osmosis in the roots

111
Q

High value of pressure means

A

high value of tension and a high degree of water stress

112
Q

Air-water-interface in mesophyll being pushed back to original position

A

water re-enters cut element

113
Q

Plant response to water stress depends upon

A

imposed conditions
genetic background
physiological status

114
Q

tomato plant subjected to rapidly drying soil

A

hydropassive response

115
Q

plant response to water stress varies

A

with extent of water deficit, rate of dehydration and by genotype

116
Q

The plant responds to water deficit after

A

a critical soil water potential is reached

117
Q

Rate of water deficit and genotype affect

A

plant response and survival

118
Q

Osmotic adjustment

A

a lowering of solute potential due to net solute accumulation in response to drought-stress

119
Q

Osmotic adjustment for turgor regulation

A

maintains water absorption and cell turgor in drought conditions
sustain higher photosynthetic rate and expansion growth under drought

120
Q

Elastic adjustment of cell wall

A

the relationship between cell volume and turgor

121
Q

softening

A

increased cell wall elasticity
delaying the loss of turgor

122
Q

plant responses to water deficit affect many processes

A

photosynthesis goes down
stomatal aperture goes down
shoot meristem and leaf growth decreases
root growth increases
solute accumulation increases
water uptake decreases

123
Q

plants have to balance

A

their growth and survival responses

124
Q

Modes of energy exchange

A

Conduction
convention
latent heat transfer
radiative exchange

125
Q

Conduction

A

individual molecules transfer kinetic energy from one to another, but… they do not move far in the process

126
Q

Convection

A

individual molecules gain kinetic energy from one regions and themselves transfer it to another region
transport of energy by a volume of fluid (here air)

127
Q

Latent heat transfer

A

latent heat of vaporization
water has a very high latent heat of vaporization

128
Q

radiative exchange

A

all matter acts as a near perfect black body

129
Q

high temp

A

short wavelength, strong emissivity energy

130
Q

low temp

A

long wavelength, weak emissivity energy

131
Q

leaf temperature

A

energy input= energy output

132
Q

energy input

A

short wavelength- radiation from sun (6.28 x 10^4 Joule)
long wavelength- reradiation from soil (3.35)
long wavelength- reradiation from air (1.26)

133
Q

conduction

A

direct transfer of heat energy from one body (leaf) to another (surrounding atmosphere: boundary layer)

134
Q

If plants are under drought stress conditions

A

stop transpiration by closing stomata, LE approaches zero, leaf temperature begines to rise, eventually a new thermal equilibrium will be established at each leaf surface

135
Q

Spines

A

functioning as reflectors and reradiators

136
Q

Essential element

A

an element that is needed for completion of life cycle
molecular constituent, without which the plant cannot perform the physiological function necessary to allow development to proceed to maturation

137
Q

Most fertilizers contain

A

nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

138
Q

Environmental and health problems by using excess amounts of fertilizers

A

nitrogen fixation is energy demanding
phosphate and potash mining is destructive
eutrophication
nitrous oxide is a major greenhouse gas

139
Q

Primary macronutrients

A

nitrogen
phophorus
potassium

140
Q

Secondary macronutrients

A

magnesium
sulfur
calcium

141
Q

Micronutrients

A

boron
chlorine
sodium
manganese
iron
nickel
copper
zinc
molybdenum

142
Q

Boron nutrient deficient conditions

A

discoloration of leaf buds. breaking and dropping of buds

143
Q

Calcium nutrient deficient conditions

A

plant dark green, tender leaves pale. drying starts from the tips. Eventually leaf bunds die

144
Q

Sulphur nutrient deficient conditions

A

Leaves light green, veins pale green no spots.

145
Q

Iron nutrient deficient condition

A

leaves pale, no spots, major veins green

146
Q

Manganese nutrient deficient conditions

A

leaves pale in color, veins and venules dark green and reticulated

147
Q

Copper nutrient deficient conditions

A

pale pink between the veins, wilt and drop

148
Q

Zinc nutrient deficient conditions

A

Leaves pale, narrow and short. veins dark green. dark spots on leaves and edges

149
Q

Molybdenum nutrient deficient conditions

A

leaves light green/lemon yellow/orange. spots on whole leaf except veins. sticky secretions from under the leaf

150
Q

magnesium nutrient deficient conditions

A

paleness from leaf edges. no spots. edges have cup shaped folds. Leaves die and drop in extreme deficiency

151
Q

potassium nutrient deficient conditions

A

small spots on the tips, edges of pale leaves. spots turns rusty. folds at tips

152
Q

Phosphorus nutrient deficient conditions

A

plant short and dark green. In extreme deficiencies turn brown or black. Bronze color under the leaf

153
Q

nitrogen nutrient deficient condition

A

stunted growth. extremely pale color. Upright leaves with light green/yellowish. Appear burnt in extreme deficiency

154
Q

Very mobile

A

N,P,K,Mg
Deficiency symptoms appear first in older leaves and quickly spread throughout the plant

155
Q

Moderately mobile

A

S, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn,
Deficiency symptoms are normally seen over the entire plant, but the growth rate and rate of nutrient availability can make a considerable difference on the locations at which the symptoms develop

156
Q

Immobile

A

B, Ca
Calcium is very immobile

157
Q

pH

A

important to nutrient availability, soil microbes and root growth

158
Q

Bacteria are prevalant in

A

alkaline (pH>7)

159
Q

Fungi are prevalent in

A

acidic (pH<7)

160
Q

Root growth

A

5.5 <pH<6.5

161
Q

Nutrient uptake

A

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
cations dissolved in soil water bind to negatively charged soil particles

162
Q

CEC

A

degree to which a soil can absorb and exchange ions
plants can free up positively charged nutrients to secrete H+ to exchange with bound cations

163
Q

Higher CEC

A

more potential for minerals in the soil

164
Q

Hoagland nutrient solution

A

highest possible nutrient concentrations without producing toxicity symptoms

165
Q

Roots hairs

A

extensions of root epidermal cells
increasing surface area for absorption

166
Q

Carnivorous plants

A

can obtain nutrients by digesting trapped animals

167
Q

Vascular plants assimilate mineral nutrients mostly

A

via roots

168
Q

root developmental responses

A

cluster roots

169
Q

biochemical responses roots

A

root exudates

170
Q

Nitrogen

A

the most abundant mineral element in a plant
the most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere
the 4th most abundant element in a plant after C, H, and O
part of carbon compounds: amino acids, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, etc

171
Q

If plants are under N-deficient conditions

A

it progresses
plant stunting
yellowing: lack of chlorophyll
older tissue affected first: N is mobile in plants

172
Q

Why is nitrogen an essential element?

A

Forms linkage between amino acids via peptide bond- complex proteins
fundamental to chemical structure of DNA and RNA

173
Q

Assimilation

A

incorporation of inoragnic nutrients into organic substances (amino acids, nucleic acids, etc.

174
Q

N assimilation

A

GS/GOGAT assimilates inorganic nitrogen into organic molecules

175
Q

Strategies to improve nitrogen- use efficiency and decrease N pollution

A

Co-cropping or growing in rotation with legumes enriches soil N content
legumes can acquire N from the atmosphere via special soil bacteria (rhizobia) which are housed in nodules on their roots
Altering flux into amino acid pools or breeding strategies can enhance nitrogen use efficiency

176
Q

Nitrogen cycle

A

nitrification, denitrification, nitrogen fixation

177
Q

roots take up

A

NO3-(nitrate)
or NH4+(Ammonium)

178
Q

Nitrogen metabolism

A

uptake, assimilation and remobilization

179
Q

Phosphorus

A

the 1st or 2nd most commonly limiting nutrient for plant growth
The 5th most abundant element in a plant
the 11th most abundant element in the earth’s crust

180
Q

If plants are under Pi-deficient conditions

A

stunted in plant growth
abnormal dark green color
older tissue affected first: P is mobile in plants
Reddish purple color: accumulation of anthocyanin pigments

181
Q

Phosphorus in soil

A

immobile, insoluble complexes

182
Q

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi

A

Facilitator for Pi uptake in most plants

183
Q

Plant root exudate and microbial exudate

A

increasing Pi availability

184
Q

Phosphate transporters

A

PHT1 for phosphate (Pi) uptake and transport

185
Q

PHO1

A

Phosphate (Pi) exporter
moves Pi into xylem: Pi transport to the shoot

186
Q

Phosphorus cycle

A

phosphorus (P) is assimilated and used as phosphate (Pi)

187
Q

Potassium and soidum

A

the twins but different
both have a single electron in the outer shell: monovalent cations
both are very abundant elements
potassium is an essential nutrient
sodium is toxic

188
Q

if platns are under K-deficient conditions

A

substantial growth reduction
yellowing appears on the oldest leaves: K is mobile in plants
brown necrotic lesions develop within the yellow parts and eventually spread to cover the entire leaf blade

189
Q

Potash

A

potassium fertilizers are mined from underground reserves
provides K+ for fertilizers

190
Q

K+ deficiency

A

rare but plant growth is usually stimulated by additional K+ supply

191
Q

Potassium is an essential plant nutrient

A

functions as a counterion for negatively charged molcules, including DNA and proteins: providing stability of dynamic structure for DNA and proteins
Cofactor in some enzymatic reactions
main cation in vacuoles
K+ generates turgor to provide structure: cell expansion, plant growth and plant movement such as regulation of stomatal apertures

192
Q

Homeostasis

A

ability of an organism to maintain an internal stability in response to environmental changes
important to the survival of plants
allowing consistency needed to function properly

193
Q

Why is calcium an essential element

A

forms a constituent of middle lamella of cell wall: binds neighboring daughter cells together
required at external surface of plasma membrane and tonoplast for membrane integrity
acts as a second messenger in signal transduction

194
Q

Why is magnesium an essential element

A

Mg transporters cloned but mechanisms still being elucidated
MG2+ required for: enzyme activities, energy transduction, chlorophyll structure

195
Q

K+ mobilization

A

critical for K+ homeostasis

196
Q

Potassium uptake by

A

high and low affinity transporters

BIO 331 (3 decks)

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