Praxis Prep Flashcards
Includes all three flashcards from the drive. Will be adding more terms from class
Post-traumatic stress disorder
After a traumatic event, symptoms are intrusive memories, avoiding emotional triggers, emotional numbness, and arousal
Genuineness
Therapist honestly communicates emotions and experiences
Lev Vygotsky
Believed that COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IS DEPENDENT ON INTERACTIONS WITH OTHERS.
Classical Conditioning
The process by which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
Unconditional Stimulus (US)
Term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
A reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR)
Term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
Extinction
When a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response disappears.
Higher-Order Conditioning
A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus though association with an already established conditioned stimulus. May contribute to the formation of prejudices.
Watson
Recognized the implication of Pavlonian theory and founded American behaviorism. Watson believed that most fears are conditioned responses to stimuli that were originally neutral. Demonstrated that phobias can be taught (Little Albert being taught to be afraid of a rat).
OPERANT CONDITIONING
A form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences. Generally, responses in operant conditioning are complex and not reflexive.
B.F. Skinner
Skinner believed that people learn to act deliberately on their environments in order to bring about desired consequences. What we need to know to understand behavior are the external causes of an action and the action’s consequences. Thus, he avoided assumptions about what an organism feels.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Correct responses after trial and errors become “stamped in” when receive satisfying effect.
Neutral Consequences
Neither increases nor decreases the probability that a behavior will recur.
Reinforcement
The process by which a stimulus strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows.
Punishment
The process by which a stimulus or event weakens the response that it follows, reducing the probability of a response.
Positive Reinforcement
A procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a pleasant stimulus (thus, response becomes stronger and more likely to occur).
Negative Reinforcement
A procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus (thus, response becomes stronger or more likely to occur).
Positive Punishment
When a response is followed by the presentation of or increase in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus (thus, response is less likely to occur).
Brown v. Board of Education
The assignment of African-American children to separate and inferior public schools is a denial of equal protection under the 14th amendment. So, each state must provide equal educational opportunity to all children within its jurisdiction regardless of race.
Pennsylvania Assocation for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971, 1972), and Mills v. Board of Education (1972)
found that exclusion of children with handicaps from public school is a denial of equal protection. Thus, states have a duty to provide equal educational opportunities to all children regardless of race, color, national origin, native language, sex, and disability under the 14th amendment.
Procedural due process
This means that a state cannot take away life, liberty, or property rights without some sort of procedural fairness to safeguard citizens from unfair or wrongful infringement of rights.
Goss v. Lopez, (1975)
the Supreme Court held that education is a property right protected by the 14th Amendment. Thus, schools may not:
1.Suspend or expel children without some sort of fair, impartial due process procedures 2. Schools may not label children (mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed = change of placement or label) without due process
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
provides financial assistance to schools with high concentrations of children from disadvantaged homes. It requires statewide reading and mathematics tests each year in grades 3-8, starting in 2005-2006. Each school must attain academic proficiency for all students in 12 years, and document progress toward that goal.
Individuals w/ Disabilities Education Act
Used to be the Education of the Handicapped Act (EHA; Pub. L. No. 94-142). The reauthorization of IDEA in 1997 (Pub. L. No. 105-117). IDEA-Part B allocates funds to states that provide a free and appropriate education to all children with disabilities. In order to receive funds, each state must have developed a plan to ensure that every child with disabilities receives special education and related services in conformance with an IEP. Must use nondiscriminatory testing and evaluation procedures and provide the least restrictive environment (LRE) feasible. IDEA-Part C provides funds to states that offer early intervention services/programs for infants and toddlers with known or suspected disabilities in conformance with an individualized family service plan (IFSP).
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA)
Under FERPA, NO federal funds will be made available to schools unless they adhere to the pupil record-keeping procedures outlined in the law, to ensure confidentiality. Parents have access to all official school records, the right to challenge the accuracy of the records, and a right to a hearing regarding their accuracy. The records are to be available only to those in the school setting with a legitimate educational interest, and parent consent must be obtained before records are released to agencies outside of the school.
The Protection of Pupil Rights Act
Need written parental consent before a pupil can be required to submit to a survey, analysis, or evaluation that reveals certain types of personal information.
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973
SECTION 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Pub. L. No. 93-112) prohibits discrimination against any qualified individual solely on the basis of a handicapping condition.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
ADA is one of the most significant federal laws ensuring equal opportunity to individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodation, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications.
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
Parents of children with MR brought suit against the state of Penn in federal court because their children were denied access to public education. The court ordered that the children have access to public school programs, and ordered comprehensive changes in policy and practices. This marked the beginning of a redefinition of education in this country to include training of children with disabilities toward self-sufficiency
Mills v. Board of Education (1972)
This was a lawsuit filed on behalf of seven children with behavioral, emotional, and learning impairments in Washington D.C. The court order reiterated many of the requirements in P.A.R.C. and required schools to provide each handicapped child with a free and suitable publicly supported education regardless of disability or impairment. After PARC and Mills, 36 right-to-education cases were filed, signaling to Congress that federal laws were needed to ensure educational opportunities for all children with disabilities.
Zero Reject Principle
States must actively locate and evaluate children with disabilities and provide them will full educational opportunities regardless of the severity of the disability.
Stay-Put Rule
Unless parents and the school agree, students remain in his or her present placement during any due process proceeding.
Hobson v. Hansen (1967, 1969)
African American and poor children were disproportionally assigned to the lower tracks based on group-administered aptitude tests. Ruled that tracking was a violation of equal protection laws
Diana v. State Board of Education (1970)
class action filed on behalf of 9 Mexican American children placed in classes for the educable mentally retarded. One girl scored a 30 and then when retested later in Spanish had a 79. Ruled that children be assessed in their primary language or with sections of tests that do not depend on knowledge of English.
Guadalupe Organization, Inc. v. Tempe Elementary School District (1972)
Class action lawsuit on behalf of Yaqui Indian and Mexican American pupils. This ruling went further than Diana by requiring a multifaceted evaluation that included assessment of adaptive behavior and an interview with the parents in determining eligibility for MR in addition to assessment in the child’s primary language or the use of nonverbal measures.
Larry P. v. Riles (1984)
Class action suit on behalf of African American pupils placed in classes for MR. The school district was unable to convince the court that IQ tests were valid for the purpose of placing African American children in MR classes. During the second phase, the judge found that IQ tests were racially and culturally discriminatory. The judge permanently forbid the state from using standardized intelligence tests to identify African American children without permission from the court or for any special education program except state-supported gifted and talented program. Then the judge later ordered that AA children can be given IQ tests with parent consent, although the California State Department of Education continued to prohibit its use.
P.A.S.E. v. Hannon (1980)
Judge decided that the use of IQ tests within the context of a multifaceted assessment process as outlined in IDEA was not likely to result in racially or culturally discriminatory classification decisions. Based his decision by reading aloud every question and correct answer on the WISC, WISC-R, and Stanford-Binet.
The IEP team is composed of:
*The parents
*At least one regular education teacher of the child
*At least one special education teacher
*A representative of the LEA who is qualified to provide, or supervise the provision of specially designed instruction, knowledgeable about the curriculum, and knowledgeable about the availability of resources of the LEA
*At the discretion of the parent or the LEA, other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise
*If appropriate, the child
*If private school placement is under consideration, a representative of the private school must participate in some what in the meeting (attend or telephone conference call).
Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP)
Either before or not later than 10 days after either first removing a child for more than 10 school days or commencing a removal that constitutes a change of placement, the school must convene an IEP team meeting. If a BIP already existed prior to the disciplinary action, the IEP team is required to review the plan and modify it to address the problem behavior. If NO BIP existed, the school must convene an IEP team meeting to develop an assessment plan, conduct a functional behavioral assessment, and implement a BIP.
Grade retention
A number of studies have found no lasting beneficial effect of grade retention, and may be detrimental in terms of self-concept, and personal and social adjustment. The method for assignment to a particular grade must be reasonably related to the purpose of providing appropriate instruction and furthering education.
Manifest Determination Review
must be conducted when: (1) a disciplinary action is contemplated as a result of weapons, drugs, or potential injury to self or others; (2) if a disciplinary action involves a change of placement for more than 10 days for a child with a disability who engaged in behavior that violated school rules or codes.
Child Find
IDEA-Part C requires each state to establish a public awareness program and a child find system to ensure that eligible children are identified and referred for evaluation.
Due Process
IDEA-Part B grants parents and the school a right to an impartial due process hearing. It must be conducted by the SEA by a “hearing officer.” The hearing must be held and a final decision reached within 45 days after the request for a hearing.
Carl Rogers
Believed that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. Because other people provide this positive regard, we are dependent on others and our view of ourselves and our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us.
Humanistic theory
This perspective contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. Each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential. Emphasis on Free Will = the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives
Client-centered case consultation
The consultant functions as a specialist who assesses the client, makes a diagnosis, and makes recommendations as to how the consultee (often a teacher) might modify his or her dealings with the client (often a student). Focuses on developing a plan that will help a specific client. The primary goal is to advise the consultee regarding treatment and to develop a plan to deal with the client’s difficulties. Usually the consultant meets with the consultee’s client to help diagnose a problem. The consultant is responsible for assessing problem and prescribing course of action. Implementation of the consultant’s recommendations is the responsibility of the consultee.
Consultee-centered case consultation
This type of consultation is most closely identified with Caplan. Like the client-centered consultation, this is concerned with difficulties a consultee encounters with a particular client for whom he or she has responsibility. Primary goal is to remediate the shortcomings in the consultee’s professional functioning that are responsible for difficulties, with client improvement a secondary goal. Thus, there is little or no direct assessment of the client.
Program-centered administrative consultation:
This is similar to client-centered case consultation because the consultant is viewed as a specialist who is called in to study a problem and provide a set of recommendations for dealing with a problem. Difference = The consultant is concerned with problems surrounding the development of a new program or some aspect of organizational functioning. Usually very rapid-paced and over quickly.
Consultee-centered administrative consultation
The goal of consultee-centered administrative consultation is to improve the professional functioning of members of an administrative staff. The consultatnt agrees to work with the organization on a long-term basis.
Bergan and Kratochwill’s behavioral-operant Consultation model
defines consultation as an indirect, problem-solving service involving a collegial relationship between the consultant and consultee in which the consultant acquires and communicates psychological data that will enable the consultee to utilize the data. Relies upon a complex communications model to elicit the information needed and includes a series of specific recommendations regarding problem identification and resolution. Bergan and Kratochwill view the consultant as an AUTHORITY FIGURE WHO ASSUMES PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE CONSULTING RELATIONSHIP. Also, they focus on changing BEHAVIORS!
Premack principle
Using high probability behavior (e.g. Listening to music) as reinforcer for low probability behavior (e.g., doing homework)
Systematic Desensitization
Eliminating phobic response by either pairing them with a neutral stimulus such as a relaxed physical state or by gradually exposing persons with phobias to the stimulus that prefaces the phobic response.
Self-monitoring
A procedure engaged by and individual with problematic behavior for the purpose of (1) identifying the parameters of the difficulty, or (2) monitoring
Cognitive
Restructuring
Involves identifying current thoughts that either precede, occurring during, or follow a problem situation, and replace them with more appropriate thoughts. Relies on cognitive modeling and feedback.
Erikson’s Stages of Development
- Trust vs. mistrust (Birth to 12-18 months)
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (12-18 months to 3 years)
- Initiative vs. Guilt (3 years to 5-6 years
- Industry vs. Inferiority (5-6 years to adolescence)
- Identity vs. role diffusion (Adolescence)
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood)
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood)
- Ego-Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood)
Social-cognitive learning theory
In other words, we learn by observing the behavior of another person, called a model (bobo doll versus tinker toy experiment).
Negative Punishment
When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of a pleasant stimulus (response is less likely to occur).
Primary Reinforcers and Punishers
A stimulus that is inherently reinforcing or punishing, typically associated with a physiological need or response (reinforcer = food, punishment = electric shock).
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The TAT is made for individuals 10 and older. The Thematic Apperception Test is a projective measure in which a subject will project his current feelings and issues unto ten, examiner chosen, ambiguous pictures. These pictures are designed to stimulate descriptions about relationships and social situations. The subject will describe his personal feelings on these themes, and the examiner will look for recurrent drives, emotions, conflicts, and complexes.
Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)
The Children’s Apperception Test (CAT) is made for children 3- 11. The Children’s Apperception Test is a projective measure in which a child will project his current feelings and issues by telling stories about ten pictures of animals in various settings. Pictures are designed to assess personality, level of maturity, and psychological health.
Steps in “Problem Solving” consultation
format
- Define the problem
- Analyze the problem
- Plan an intervention
- Evaluate your ourcome
Reliability
The ability of a test to produce similar results over time.
validity
A test’s ability to measure what its purpose is to measure
Type I Error
When you say something is true but it is not (rejecting the null hypothesis)
Type II Error
Stating something is false, but it is really true (accepting a Null hypothesis)
T-score *Hint: do not confuse T-score with standard scores
Has a mean of 50 and an SD of 10
Z-score
Has a mean of 0 and a SD of 1
Least Restrictive Environment
Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) of 1975 children with disabilities are to be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) possible. This basically means that each individual disabled child must be placed in regular classrooms as much as their disability permits. It is important to remember that LRE is a concept and not a place.
Mean of T Score
50
Correlation Coefficient
A Statistical measure of relationship …… does not show CAUSATION. It shows if two sets of data are related. The Pearson r is the most commonly used tool to predict the correlation, on interval and ratio data Correlation Coefficient can range from +1 ( positive correlation ) to - 1 ( negative correlation ). When a correlation exists, by knowing one score you can predict another score most of the time.
Regression
Major purpose of testing is prediction and Regression is the primary statistical tool for this purpose. Regression analysis provides an equation that DESCRIBES the RELATIONSHIP between the two variables.
The range of Standard deviation scores
-3 to + 3
Standard Scores or Standardized Scores
These scores express a person’s distance from the mean, in terms of standard deviation of the distribution. They are continuous and have equality of units and allow for comparison between individuals.
Zero Reject
This is a principle that requires the school to provide a free appropriate public education to all students with disabilities. Zero reject prohibits denial of any student’s right to education. That is, it is a rule that provides that, although a student may be disciplined, the student may not be subjected to any cessation of educational services. For example, even if a student is properly expelled from a school, the school district must continue to educate the student, although in another setting.
Nondiscriminatory Evaluation
All evaluations provided by the school must be fair, nondiscriminatory, and appropriate for the child’s needs. All evaluations must be considered, (even ones paid for by the parents outside of the school.)
Appropriate education
Every student has a right to an Individualized Education Plan. This plan is to assure specified outcomes for the student, namely equal opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency and, while in school, access to the general curriculum and, where appropriate, advanced placement courses or a vocational educational program. Least restrictive environment: This principle guarantees that a child will be educated with same-age peers in the general curriculum to the maximum extent possible.
Procedural Due Process
The fifth principle is known as the safeguards. These safeguards assure that the school is providing the services and placements required. This principle also requires team decision-making concerning the student’s education. Parent and Student Participation: This principle requires parent and school participation in team decision-making. This law ensures provision of legally required services.
Least Restrictive Environment
a relative idea that must be determined individually for each student. The LRE is determined not by the student’s disability, but by his or her educational needs. Also, the classroom the pupil is placed in must meet the special needs of the student as well as the others in the classroom. LRE entitles the student to maximum interaction and involvement with non-disabled students while still giving the exceptional student a quality education.
The Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT)
The UNIT is a test without language, made for kids 5-17.11 years old. This test requires the use of sign language and other hand gestures. Kids who don’t know English are going to like it! So are the children in speech and language.
Resource Rooms
has historically been one of the most common service delivery models for students with disabilities. Resource rooms are where students with disabilities receive special instruction and services while normal students stay in separate classes. In 1992, over half of all disabled students spent a significant period of the school day in a resource room. But in the mid 90’s there was a shift from resource rooms to more inclusive programs.
FAPE
free appropriate education, says that all children are entitled to an adequate free education despite how severe their disabilities may be.
Brown v. Board of Education
the 1954 landmark school desegregation case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka stated that segregation is unequal. *Overturned “Plessy v. Ferguson “Separate but Equal” ruling.
Diana v. State board of Eduction
Found schools are to give assessments in Child’s native language. *Nonverbal assessments may also be used
Debra P. v. Turlington
Schools must prove that they have educated a student sufficiently before they can be given a graduation test.
The Perkin’s act
Authorizes federal funds to support vocational education programs. It was most recently reauthorized in August 2006 (Public Law 105-332). The purpose of this Act is to provide individuals with the academic and technical skills needed to succeed in a knowledge and skills based economy.
Honig v. Doe
Prohibited SPED students from being suspended for more than 10 days. Required manifestation determination. Ensures parental rights with safeguards such as “stay put”
Hobson v. Hansen
Dissolved the tracking system used in conjunction with IQ tests because tests were inaccurate with regard to ethnically and economically diverse populations.
Americans with Disabilities Act
forbids discrimination in public and private places against individuals with disabilities. After this act came the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (PL 94-142), which is a considered a “Bill of Rights” and is one of the most important pieces of legislation for exceptional children
