Practice Tests Flashcards
Degrees of Unsaturation in Single Bonds
0
Degrees of Unsaturation in a Ring
1
Degrees of Unsaturation in a Double Bond
1
Degrees of Unsaturation in a Triple Bond
2
First Overtone= ___ Harmonic
2nd
Second Overtone= ____ Harmonic
3rd
General Definition of a Salt
any ionic substances that do not have OH- or H+ as ions
Histone Acetylation
addition of an acetyl group on lysine residues in the N-terminal tail and on the surface of the nucleosome core of histone proteins to open up and increase transcription (deacetylation does opposite)
Agonists/Antagonists bind the: ____
receptor
NOT the ligand
If blood pH is too low, your respiratory rate:
Increases and blows off more CO2
If blood pH is too high, your respiratory rate:
Slows
If blood pH is too low, your kidneys:
excrete more H+, and reabsorb H2CO3
If blood pH is too high, your kidneys
excrete more H2CO3, and reabsorb more H+
Gap Junctions
connections between the cytoplasm between adjacent cells
Umbilical Arteries
carry blood away from the fetus to the placenta, with waste and deoxygenated blood
Umbilical Vein
carry blood to the fetus from the placenta, with oxygenated blood and nutrients
Macrophages do three things:
phagocytize invaders via endocytosis
digests invader using enzymes
presents pieces of invader using MHC I
Natural Killer Cells
detect down regualtion of MHC and induce apoptosis in the infected and cancerous cells
Granulocytes Include:
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils/Mast Cells
Mast Cells are Found in:
tissues, mucosa, epithelium
B-Cells
produce antibodies and work via humoral immunity
Helper T-Cells
coordinate immune response by responding to MHC II molecules
Cytotoxic T-Cells
directly kill cells that are displaying MHC I molecules
Suppressor T-Cells
tone down response once infection has been contained
Cofactors
small inorganic molecules or metal ions (often minerals)
Coenzymes
organic groups, usually vitamins/vitamin derivatives
What element phase is not included in the Ksp equaiton
solids
Common Ion Effect
solubility of the reaction is reduced by a common ion, therefore reducing Ksp
Electrons that are further away from the nucleus experience an effective nuclear charge that is:
less than the actual nuclear charge (sheilding)
Shielding
refers to the core electrons repelling the outermost electrons, which lowers the effective nuclear charge of the outer electrons
Powerful Nucleophiles favour
SN2 reactions
Weaker Nucleophiles favour
SN1 reactions
Characteristics of SN2 Reactions
single step strong nucleophile inversion of configuration bimolecular transition state prefers methyl>primary alcohol>secondary>tertiary
Characteristics of SN1 Reactions
two steps weak nucleophile racemic mixture carbocation formation prefers tertiary alcohol> secondary>primary>methyl
ETC: Complex 1
NADH transfers electrons
ETC: Complex 2
FADH2 transfers electrons
ETC: Complex 3
Q collects electrons form C1 and C2 to pump H ions across the membrane
ETC: Complex 4
cytochrome c carries electrons to C4 and final H+ is pumped across and passed to O2
Posterior Pituitary
collection of axonal projections from hypothalamus and serves as a direct connection to CNS
Adrenal Medulla
controls fight of flight response hormones, direct connection to ANS
Red Bone Marrow
RBC and WBC production
Yellow Bone Marrow
adipose tissue storage
Ig Antibody structure
globular proteins with two identical light chains and 2 identical heavy chains (50kDa)
Hills Coefficient
1= independent binding
Above 1 = cooperativity
Chelating Agents
ligands that are able to form two or more coordinate covalent bonds with a metal ion (often have a coordination number of 6)
Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor binds to active site, and to overcome it more substrate can be added. On a plot the lines intersect at the y-axis. No effect on Vmax, increases Km.
Non-Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor binds to allosteric site, cannot be overcome by adding more substrate. On a plot the lines originate from the same point on the X-axis. Vmax is reduced, Km not changed.
Uncompetitive Inhibition
Inhibitor binds to the enzyme substrate complex once it is formed so that it cannot release the product. It appears as parallel lines on a plot. Vmax and Km are reduced.
Higher Frequency=
lower wavelength
More Visible Light is a result of:
more delocalization, causing higher wavelengths to be absorbed
Normal force comes from
the object that it is resting on
Normal force counteracts
force of gravity (mass x g)
Osmotic Pressure Formula
pi = iMRT
Osmotic Pressure
occurs when two solutions with different concentrations are separated by a membrane
Higher osmotic pressure comes from
increase in temperature or concentration
Germ cells begin as haploid or diploid?
haploid
After chromosomes are replicated in S-phase, cells are haploid or diploid?
diploid
Cells return to haploid after?
fertilization
Primary protein structure is stabilized by:
peptide bonds
Secondary protein structure is stabilized by:
hydrogen bonds and backbone structure
Tertiary protein structure is stabilized by:
hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals interactions, and disulfide bridges
Quaternary protein structure is stabilized by:
hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals interactions, and disulfide bridges
Solvation Shell in Proteins:
helps to further stabilize protein structures by orienting positive residues on the outside in the body so they can interact with water
Myofibrils are made up of:
thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments
Actin filaments are anchored at the
Z-Line
The region between Z lines is
the sarcomere (contractile unit)
Myosin cross bridges attach to actin and walk along them using the assistance of
ATP
Doubling time equation
P(t) = Po (2) ^ t/D
Simple Diffusion
Molecules move down their gradient and cross the membrane unassisted
Facilitated Diffusion
Molecules move down their gradient and cross the membrane with assistance from a membrane transport channel
Glycogenesis
formation of glycogen from glucose
Glycolysis
break down of glucose to pyruvate
Gluconeogenesis
production of glucose from non carbohydrate precursors
Gluconeogenesis starting materials
lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and some amino acids
Glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Fermentation
starts with glycolysis, and extra reactions let NADH drop off electrons with organic molecules (like pyruvate) which creates lactate which can be regenerated to pyruvate at the liver
Chelating Agents
ligands that are able to form two or more coordinate covalent bonds with a metal ion
Higher frequency wave=
lower wavelength
In order for there to be light in the visible region a molecule must contain:
either pi bonds or atoms with non bonding orbitals
increase in wavelength absorption is proportional to
increase in electron delocalization in a molecule
Ideal gas constant
- 08 atm x L / mol x K
8. 3 J / mol x K
Ideal Gas Law Assumes:
no intermolecular forces
no volume of particles
all collisions are perfectly elastic
Normal Force
the force from the object that the object of interest is sitting on that directly counteracts Fg
Gas Chromatography
Mobile Phase: inert gas
Stationary Phase: solid or liquid
Separates by: any property differing from the mobile phase
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
Mobile Phase: mixture of polar and non polar liquid components
Stationary Phase: if more polar than the mobile phase it is a normal phase (less polar=less retention), and if it is less polar than the mobile phase it is a reverse phase (less polar=more retention)
Paper Chromatography
Mobile Phase: non polar
Stationary Phase: paper, aka: cellulose, polar
Separates by: polarity (charge) nonpolar molecules travel farther, polar molecules
Thin-Layer Chromatography
Stationary Phase: silica gel, very polar
Compounds that can form H bonds with the stationary phase do not travel far
Electrophoresis
uses an electric field applied across a gel matrix that can separate large molecules by charge and size
Isoelectric focusing alters the
pH
SDS PAGE alters the
charge
Size Exclusion Chromatography
separates molecules by size, small molecules get trapped in pores and proceed slower
Ion Exchange Chromatography
separates ionizable molecules based on charge
Affinity Chromatography
separates mixture based on specific interaction
Enantiomers are separated using
another chiral substance
In an extraction the aqueous phase contains
water and charges particles
In an extraction the organic phase contains
uncharged species and neutral compounds
Simple Distilation
best for very different boiling points
Fractional Distilation
addition of a fractioning column, and can be used for liquids with closer boiling points
Vacuum Distilation
addition of a vacuum, used for liquids with very high boiling points
Velocity of Blood Flow
varies inversely with the total cross sectional area of the vessels
pH Units
vary by factors of 10
- Beta decay
loss of a negative charged electron
+ beta decay
loss of a positive charges electron
Chaperone Proteins
assist with protein folding and prevent non-specific aggregation by binding to non-native proteins
NAD name
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
FADH name
flavin adenine dinucleotide
Steroid Structure
4 fused rings, 3 that are 6 membered, 1 that is 5 membered
Acetyl CoA is created via:
beta oxidation of fatty acids
oxidation of pyruvate
proteolysis followed by deamination and oxidation of amino acids
Acetyl CoA creates:
sterols, fatty acids, TCA cycle, ketone bodies, protein acetylation
Endomembrane System
group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package and transport proteins and lipids
ABC Transporters
use the energy of ATP binding and hydrolysis to transport various substrates across the membrane
Chemiosmisis
process of pumping protons through the ETC at the mitochondrial membrane and ATP synthase creating ATP from ADP
Filtration of Blood in Kidney
occurs in the glomerulus and what cannot be filtered enters the efferent arteriole
Reabsorption in Kidney
reabsorbing the needed nutrients and substances into the blood and passing the fluid onto the ureter
Secretion in the Kidney
substances removed from the blood into the collecting duct and fluid is passed to the bladder to be excreted as urine
Secretion occurs in two main areas
Proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule
Secretion at PCT
creatinine, antibiotics, diuretics, uric acid
Secretion at DCT
K, H, urea
Na/K ATPase pump function
to reestablish the resting membrane potential after an AP
NA/K ATPase pump process
pumps out 3 Na+ for every 2 K+ into the cell, using energy
Na/K ATPase pump is located in the
sarcolemme
Oxidation and Reduction in electrochemical cells occurs at:
Reduction- Cathode (RED CAT)
Oxidation- Anode (AN OX)
Kinases
add phosphate functional groups to different substrates
Transferases
transfer a functional group from one substance to another
Ligases
catalyze addition of two molecules to make one
Oxidoreductases
transferring electrons from one substance to another
Oxidases
directly involved with oxidizing (taking electrons away)
Reductase
directly involved with reducing (giving electrons to)
Isomerases
involved in converting between isomers
Hydrolases
Use water to separate a molecule into two
Lyase
catalyzes the dissociation of a molecule
Polarity Ranking of Organic Molecules
Amide Acid Alcohol Ketone/Aldehyde Amine Ester Ether Alkane
Oxidation is
the loss of electrons, or an increase in the oxidation state of an atom/ion
Reduction is
the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state of an atom/ion
Pi Stacking is
the attractive, noncovalent interaction between aromatic rings (because they contain pi bonds)
In electrochemical cells oxidation always occurs at the
anode
in electrochemical cells reduction always occurs at the
cathode
In Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells the electrons flow from
the anode (negative) to the cathode (positive)
Ionic Bonds form between
atoms that will dissociate into ions
have very different electronegativities
Polar Covalent Bonds
created when the shared electrons are not equally shared because one atom has a higher electronegativity
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
created when the atoms share their electrons equally because they have similar electron affinities
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
created when one atom donates both of the electrons to be shared to create the bond
Coordination Number
the total number of points of attachment to the central element
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
pH = pKa + log ([Conjugate Base]/[acid])
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation is used for:
calculating the buffer pH of a system
Ksp is the
equilibrium constant for a solid substance dissolving in an aqueous solution and it represents the level at which a solute dissolves in solution
When Ksp is high
a substance is more soluble
Ksp equation
aA (s) cC (aq) + dD (aq)
Ksp = [C]^c[D]^d
Common Ion Effect
solubility is reduces by a common ion
Hess’s Law
The total enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum of all changes, and is independent of the path taken
When to use Hess’s Law
when given the enthalpies of part reactions
Work Equations
W= FΔr cosθ W = ΔKE W= Fd KE = 1/2 mv^2
Power Equation
P = W/t
Decibels increase by __ which increases intensity by ____
for every 10 increase in decibels is an increase of 1 exponent value
eg:
10 dB = 1 x 10^ -11
20 dB = 1 X 10^-10
Absorption of UV light by organic molecules always results in
electronic excitation
Metabolic Flux
is the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway
Metabolic Flux is regulated by
the enzymes involved in a pathway, and changes under certain conditions
Action Potential Phases
Depolarization: opening of voltage gated Na+ channels
Repolarization: closure of Na+ and opening of K+ voltage gated channels
Hyperpolarization: voltage gated K+ channels remain open after the potential reaches resting level
Secretory Proteins are synthesized:
by ribosomes of the RER, and transfered to the golgi apparatus
Lactate dehydrogenase
catalyzes the transfer of pyruvate to lactate
hexokinase
phosphorylates glucase to form glucose 6- phosphate
phosphofructokinase
catallyzes the transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP to fructose 6-phosphate to make fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
pyruvate kinase
catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate
Southern Blot
Target Molecule:
Sample Preparation:
DNA
DNA extraction and enzymatic digestion
Northern Blot
Target Molecule:
Sample Preparation:
RNA
RNA isolation
Western Blot
Target Molecule:
Sample Preparation:
Protein
Protein Extraction
Vasopressin
aka ADH
regulates extracellular fluid volume by regulating renal handling of water by acting on the renal collecting ducts
Myelin forming cells in the PNS
Schwann Cells
Myelin forming cells in the CNS
oligodendrocytes
Endosome
primarily intracellular sorting organelles, they regulate the trafficking of proteins and lipids
DNA reading Frame
5’ - 3’
amino terminus - carboxy terminus
ATP produced in Aerobic conditions
36
ATP produced in anaerobic conditions
2
