Practical 2 Flashcards
Antigens
- surface glycoproteins and glycolipids
- reacts with a specific antibody
- able to produce a specific immune response
Antibodies
- found in plasna
- combines with a specific antigen
- involved in inhibiting or destroying the antigen and its cell
Type A
A antigen, Anti-B antibody
Type B
B antigen, Anti-A antibody
Type AB
Both A and B antigen, Neither antibody
Type O
Neither A nor B antigen, Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies
Rh Positive
presence of Rh antigen on erythrocyte (blood does not contain anti-Rh antibodies)
Rh Negative
absence of Rh antigen on erythrocyte (blood does not contain anti-Rh antibodies UNLESS the person is exposed to Rh antigen in childbirth, blood transfusions, and sharing needles)
Functions of the Respiratory System
- provides gas exchange
- regulates blood pH
- contains receptors for sense of smell
- filters air
- produces sounds
- rids the body of some water and heat through expired air
Respiratory System Main Organs
- nose
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- lungs
Upper Respiratory System
- nose
- nasal cavity
- pharynx
- associated structures
Lower Respiratory System
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- lungs
Conducting Zone
- filters, warms, and moistens air
- conducts that air into the lungs
- nose, nasal cavity pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
Respiratory Zone
- site of gas exchange
- respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli
Nose function
warms, humidifies, and filters air
Nose main composition
bone (base) and hyaline cartilage (anterior)
External Nares
openings for air to enter nasal cavity (nostrils)
Nasal Cavity
lined with mucous membrane
Nasal Septum
separates right and left nasal cavity (nosebleeds, deviated septum)
Turbinates/Conchae
curved bony structures in nasal cavity (superior, middle, inferior)
Meatus
increases surface area, warms and humidifies air, dry mouth when sick (superior, middle, inferior)
Hard Palate
bony; forms floor of nasal cavity
Internal Nares
openings that lead into nasopharynx
Pharynx
throat
Nasopharynx
begins at internal nares and ends at soft palate
Oropharynx
begins at soft palate and ends at hyoid bone
Laryngopharynx
begins at hyoid bone and ends at esophagus
Soft palate
posterior extension of hard palate
Uvula
dangles inferiorly as an extension of soft palate (swallowing)
Paranasal Sinuses
cavities that warm and moisten air and drain into nasal cavity
- frontal sinus
- maxillary sinus
- ethmoidal sinus
- sphenoidal sinus
Auditory (Eustachian) Tubes
connect ear to nasopharynx (behind nasal cavity)
Tonsils
- pharyngeal tonsil (1)
- palatine tonsils (2)
- lingual tonsils (2)
Larynx
voicebox (all cartilages are hyaline except epiglottis)
Glottis
opening into larynx
Paired Cartilages
posterior wall of larynx
- arytenoid cartilages
- cuneiform cartilages
- conrniculate cartilages
Thyroid Cartilage
- single cartilage
- largest
- Adam’s apple
Cricoid Cartilage
- single cartilage
- complete ring
- larger on posterior side
Epiglottis
- single cartilage
- closes over glottis
- elastic cartilage
Structures of Voice Production
folds are lateral to glottis
Ventricular folds/ Vestibular folds/ False Vocal Cords
superior and lateral
Vocal folds/ True Vocal Cords
- inferior and medial
- attached to arytenoid cartilages via small muscles
- laryngitis
Trachea
- windpipe
- tubular passageway for air
- extends from larynx and divides into primary bronchi
- anterior to esophagus
- many incomplete rings of cartilage around trachea
Tracheal Cartilage
where a tracheotomy is performed
Trachealis Muscle
- changes diameter of trachea during inhalation and exhalation
- coughing and choking
Lungs
- apex: rounded superior part
- base: broader inferior part
Hilum
medial side of the lung (entrance and exit area for bronchi, blood supply, lymphatic vessels, and nerves)
Lobes of Right Lung
superior, middle and inferior
Lobes of Left Lung
superior and inferior (cardiac notch is a concave surface where apex of heart lies)
Pleaural Membrane
encloses and protects lungs
Double-Layered Serous Membrane
- visceral pleura: covers surface of each lung
- parietal pleura: lines thoracic cavity wall
Pleaural Cavity
- space between visceral and parietal pleura
- contains pleural fluid which reduces friction during inhalation and exhalation
Bronchial Tree
Trachea Primary Bronchi Secondary Bronchi Tertiary Bronchi Bronchioles Terminal Bronchioles Respiratory Bronchioles Alveolar Ducts Alveolar Sacs Alveoli
Trachea
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Primary Bronchi
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Secondary Bronchi
Simple columnar epithelium with few cilia
Tertiary Bronchi
Simple columnar epithelium with few cilia and Simple Cuboidal epithelium with few cilia
Bronchioles
Simple cuboidal epithelium with few cilia
Terminal Bronchioles
Simple cuboidal epithelium with few cilia
Respiratory Bronchioles
Simple cuboidal epithelium with few cilia and Simple squamous epithelium
Alveolar Ducts
Simple squamous epithelium
Alveolar Sacs
Simple squamous epithelium
Alveoli
Simple squamous epithelium
Carina
where trachea splits into right and left primary (main) bronchi
Which bronchus is longer?
Left primary bronchus
Changes from bronchi to bronchioles
- diameter of airway decreases
- changes in epithelium
- change from cartilage to smooth muscle (asthmatic inhalers)
How does smoking affect the respiratory system?
- nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles
- hemoglobin has a greater affinity for CO than O2
- increased mucus secretion and swelling of mucosal lining
- destruction of elastic fibers (emphysema)
Mucociliary Clearance
defense mechanism to protect lungs from pollutants, allergens, and pathogens (cilia and goblet cells work together to remove inhaled particles from lungs)
–cilia become paralyzed and debris is not cleared
Extensive long term smoking
change in tissue type (metaplasia) from pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium to stratified squamous epithelium (no cilia)
Pulmonary Ventilation
- macroscopic
- breathing
- moving air between atmosphere and lungs (inhalation and exhalation)
External Respiration
movement of O2 and CO2 between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
Internal Respiration
movement of O2 and CO2 between capillaries and tissues
Cellular Respiration
cells use O2 to create ATP (energy)
Pulmonary ventilation inhalation
air moves into lungs when pressure inside lungs is less than atmospheric pressure
Pulmonary ventilation exhalation
air moves out of lungs when pressure inside lungs is greater than atmospheric pressure
Boyles Law
inverse relationship between pressure and volume
Pressure changes during pulmonary ventilation inhalation
- thorax expands
- parietal pleura pulled outward
- pleural cavity volume increases
- intrapleural pressure decreases
- visceral pleura and lungs pulled outward
- alveolar pressure decreases
- air enters lungs
Pressure changes during pulmonary ventilation exhalation
- lungs recoil and thorax decreases in size
- visceral pleura pulled inward
- alveolar pressure increases
- pleural cavity volume decreases and parietal pleura pulled inward
- intrapleural pressure increases
- air leaves lungs
Intrapleural Pressure
pressure between the two pleural layer
Alveolar Pressure
pressure inside the lungs
Pneumothorax
- air enters pleural cavity
- intrapleural pressure increases
- lung collapses
- open valve
- air escapes
- intrapleural pressure decreases
- inhales
- close valve
- intrapleural pressure increases
- exhales
- that shit hurted
Quiet inhalation muscles
- diaphragm contracts
- external intercostal muscles contract
Forced inhalation muscles
- diaphragm contracts
- external intercostal muscles contract
- sternocleidomastoid contracts
- scalenes contract
- pectoralis minor muscles contract
Quiet exhalation muscles
- diaphragm relaxes
- external iintercostal muscles relax
Forced exhalation muscles
- diaphragm relaxes
- external intercostal muscles relax
- internal intercostal muscles contract
- abdominal muscles–external obliques, internal obliques, transverse abdominal, recites abdominus contract
Lymphatic System Functions
- drains excess interstitial fluid and returns it to bloodstream
- carries out immune responses
- transports dietary lipids and lipid soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
Lymphatic System Componenets
- lymphatic organs
- lymphatic tissues
- lymphatic vessels
- lymph
Lymph
fluid found within lymphatic vessels
Blood capillaries filter:
more plasma than what is reabsorbed
Interstitial fluid
excess fluid in interstitial spaces
What do lymphatic capillaries absorb?
interstitial fluid
Lymphatic Capillaries
- lies near blood capillaries
- closed at one end
Chain of lymphatic capillaries to ducts
- lymphatic capillaries merge to form lymphatic vessels
- lymphatic vessels merge to form lymph trunks
- lymph trunks merge to form ducts (thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct)
Lymphatic Vessels
- carry lymph
- thinner walls
- more valves
- dead-end capillary
- carrying lymph in one direction
- all drain into subclavian vein
Veins
- carry blood
- thicker walls
- less valves
- carry blood in all directions throughout body
Similarities of lymphatic vessels and veins
- carry fluid back to heart
- refer to fluid as being “drained”
- valves
- carry leukocytes
- use skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, and arterial pump
Cisterna Chyli
sac-like reservoir in the abdominal area where lymph trunks merge into; also mark the start of thoracic duct
Thoracic Duct
- begins at cisterna chyli
- drains lymph from legs, abdomen, left arm, and left side of the thorax, neck, and head
- drains into the left subclavian vein
Right lymphatic duct
- drains lymph from right arm and right side of the thorax, neck, and head
- drains into right subclavian vein
Flow of lymph
- lymphatic capillaries
- lymphatic vessels
- lymphatic nodes
- lymphatic vessels
- lymphatic trunks
- lymphatic ducts
Lymph nodes
- submandibular nodes
- cervical nodes
- axillary nodes
- bronchial nodes
- mammary nodes
- illiac nodes
- intestinal nodes
- inguinal nodes
Lymph trunks
- subclavian trunks
- jugular trunks
- lumbar trunks
- intestinal trunks
Subclavian Trunks
- axillary nodes
- bronchial nodes
- mammary nodes
Jugular Trunks
- cervical nodes
- submandibular nodes
Lumbar Intestinal Trunks
- illiac nodes
- intestinal nodes
- inguinal nodes
Primary Lymphatic Organs
where lymphocytes are produced and become immunocompetent (red bone marrow and thymus)
Secondary Lymphatic Organs
where immune responses occur (spleen and lymph nodes (axillary, mammary, intestinal, inguinal, iliac, cervical, submandibular, bronchial))
Lymphatic Organs
surrounded by capsule
Lymphatic Tissues
not surrounded by a capsule
Lymphatic Nodules
where immunes responses occur (MALT and Aggregations)
MALT
- mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
- tiny specs of lymphoid tissue inside connective tissue of mucous membranes
- urinary, digestive, reproductive, and respiratory
- necessary because these tracts are open to external environment
Aggregations
- large clumps or clusters of lymphoid tissue
- Peyer’s patches: digestive to small intestine)
- Appendix: digestive
- Tonsils: respiratory to pharyngeal, lingual, and palatine tonsils
- Bronchial nodules: respiratory
Spleen
- largest lymphatic organ
- secondary lymphatic organ
Spleen functions
- filters blood of foreign organisms and particles
- eliminates old erythrocytes
- blood reservoir for platelets
White Pulp
- nodules
- houses mostly lymphocytes (B and T cells) and macrophages
- stains dark purple due to the many leukocytes
Red Pulp
- houses platelets and erythrocytes
- stains a lighter color due to the many erythrocytes (no nuclei)
Two regions in Lymph Node
- cortex
- medulla
Route through lymph node
- afferent vessels
- subscapular sinus
- trabecular sinus
- medullary sinus
- efferent vessels
Antibody-mediated immunity
B cells to plasma cells and memory B cells
B Cells
- originate in red bone marrow
- mature and become immunocompetent in red bone marrow
Plasma Cells
secrete antibodies
Memory B Cells
aid in fighting foreign body at a future time
Cell-mediated immunity
T cells to helper T cells/CD4 T cells, cytotoxic T cells/CD8 T cells, and memory T cells
T Cells
- originate in red bone marrow
- mature and become immunocompetent in thymus
Helper T cells/ CD4 T cells (Captain)
secrete cytokines to help activate other immune cells
Cytotoxic T cells/ CD8 T cells (Kill)
directly attack and destroy infected cells
Memory T Cells
aid in fighting foreign body at a future time
Tonsillitis
inflammation or infection of tonsils
Causes of Tonsillitis
viral or bacterial
Symptoms of Tonsillitis
sore throat, fever, swollen lymph nodes, nasal congestion, difficulty swallowing, headache
Treatments for Tonsillitis
- antibiotics
- tonsillectomy
Appendicitis
inflammation of the appendix
Causes of Appendicitis
blockage in the lining of appendix that results in infection
Symptoms of Appendicitis
abdominal pain, fever, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite
Treatment for Appendicitis
Appendectomy (to avoid risk of appendix rupturing and causing peritonitis which is an infection and inflammation in abdomen or gangrene which is a loss of tissue)
Metastasis in Cancer
- spread of cancer from one part of the body to another
- can occur via blood vessels or lymphatic vessels (cancer cells can squeeze through these vessel walls)
- secondary tumor sites
- cancerous vs. enlarged lymph nodes
Secondary tumor sites
establishments of new tumors where cancer cells are lodged after traveling through lymph or blood
Cancerous Lymph nodes
enlarged, firm, contender, fixed
Enlarged Lymph nodes
softer, tender, movable
Elephantiasis clinical name
lymphatic filariasis
Lymphodema
tissue swelling
Elephantiasis
skin/tissue thickening
Hydrocele
scrotal swelling
Treatments are Elephantiasis
diethylcarbamazine (DEC), preventative chemotherapy, morbidity management (hygiene, skin care, exercises), vector control (nets, sprays)
Endocrine System Functions
secretes hormones to cause changes in the activity of target cells and direct cellular activities (maintains homeostasis)
Components of the endocrine system
- pineal gland
- hypothalamus
- pituitary gland
- thyroid gland
- parathyroid glands
- thymus
- adrenal glands
- pancreas
- ovaries
- testes
Endocrine Glands
secrete hormones into interstitial fluid and blood surrounding the secretory glands
Exocrine Glands
secrete products into ducts that carry secretions into body cavities, into the lumen of an organ, or to outer surface of body (“external environment”)
ex. sudoriferous (sweat) glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, digestive glands
Paracrine
acting on neighboring cells
Autocrine
acting on same cell that secreted molecules
Nervous system speed
fast-acting, travels short distances
Endocrine system speed
longer-lasting, travels long distances
Mediator molecules (nervous)
neurotransmitters released locally in response to nerve impulses
Mediator molecules (endocrine)
hormones delivered to tissues throughout body by blood
Site of mediator action (nervous)
close to site of release, at synapse; binds to receptors in postsynaptic membrane
Site of mediator action (endocrine)
far from site of release (usually); binds to receptors on or in target cells
Types of target cells (nervous)
muscle (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal) cells, gland cells, other neurons
Types of target cells (endocrine)
cells throughout body
Time to onset of action (nervous)
typically within milliseconds (thousandths of a second)
Time to onset of action (endocrine)
seconds to hours or days
Duration of action (nervous)
generally briefer (milliseconds)
Duration of action (endocrine)
generally longer (seconds to days)
Hypothalamus
- links nervous and endocrine systems
- regulates pituitary glands
- secretes at least 9 hormones
Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
- composed of glandular epithelial tissue
- makes and secretes 7 hormones (hGh, TSH, FSH, LH, PRL, ACTH, MSH)
- Hypophyseal portal system
Hypophyseal Portal System
hypothalamus will secrete hormones into blood that will stimulate or inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
- composed of neural tissue
- stores and releases into blood 2 hormones (ADH, OT)
- ADH and OT synthesized within cell bodies of hypothalamic neurons, packaged into vesicles, travel down axons into posterior pituitary, and released into blood
Human Growth Hormone location
cartilage, bone, skeletal muscle, liver, and other body tissues
Human Growth Hormone function
stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulates body growth and metabolism
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone location
thyroid gland
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone function
stimulates growth of thyroid gland and secretion of its hormones
Follicle Stimulating Hormone location
testes and ovaries
Follicle Stimulating Hormone function
- Testes: stimulates sperm production
- Ovaries: stimulates oocyte production and estrogen secretion
Luteinizing Hormone location
testes and ovaries
Luteinizing Hormone function
- Testes: stimulates secretion of testosterone
- Ovaries: triggers ovulation and stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone
Prolactin location
mammary gland
Prolactin function
stimulates production and secretion of milk
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone location
adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone function
stimulates secretion of hormones by adrenal cortex
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone location
skin
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone function
darkens skin pigmentation
Anti-Diuretic Hormone location
kidneys
Anti-Diuretic Hormone function
decreases water lost in urine by returning water to the blood
Oxytocin location
uterus and mammary gland
Oxytocin function
stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling
Thyroxine location
follicular cells
Thyroxine function
increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Triiodothyronine location
follicular cells
Triiodothyronine location
follicular cells
Triiodothyronine function
increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Calcitonin location
parafollicular cells/ C cells
Calcitonin function
decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts
Parathyroid Hormone location
principal cells
Parathyroid Hormone function
increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone matrix
Aldosterone location
Kidneys (zona glomerulosa)
Aldosterone function
decreases sodium and water loss in urine by returning sodium and water to the blood
Cortisol location
liver, muscle, and cells involved in body defenses (zone fasciculata)
Cortisol function
increases resistance to stress, increases blood glucose levels, and decreases inflammation
Androgens location
uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in secondary sex characteristics (zone reticularis)
Androgens function
insignificant in males; increases sex drive in females
Epinephrine location
body cells involved in fight or flight response
Epinephrine function
promotes fight or flight response
Norepinephrine location
body cells involved in fight or flight response
Norepinephrine function
promotes fight or flight response
Insulin location
beta cells
Insulin function
decreases blood glucose levels by transporting glucose into body cells
Glucagon location
liver (alpha cells)
Glucagon function
increases blood glucose levels by stimulating liver to break down glycogen into glucose
Estrogen location
uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in female sex characteristics
Estrogen function
stimulates development of female sex characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle
Progesterone location
uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in female sex characteristics
Progesterone function
stimulates development of female sex characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle
Testosterone location
testes, muscle, and other body cells involved in male sexual characteristics
Testosterone function
stimulates development of male sex characteristics; stimulates male sex drive; regulates sperm production
Melatonin location
brain
Melatonin function
helps to set biological clock
Thymosin location
T cells (type of white blood cell involved in immune response)
Thymosin function
promotes the maturation of T cells for the immune response
Negative Feedback
- reverses a change in controlled condition
- hormones released by target glands decrease secretions of their tropic hormones
Positive Feedback
- strengthens a change in body’s controlled condition
- adds to or reinforces the initial change in controlled condition
Diabetes Mellitus
- inability to produce or use insulin
- insulin unavailable to help transport glucose into cells
- leads to glycosuria, polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia
Type 1 Diabetes
- autoimmune disorder: immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells and little to no insulin is produces
- insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
- juvenile DM: affects people younger than age 20
- diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Type 2 Diabetes
- decreased insulin sensitivity: pancreatic beta cells still produce insulin, but insulin receptors on target cells become less sensitive to insulin
- non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
- adult onset DM: largely affects people older than 35 (usually obese)
- hypoglycemia from injecting too much insulin
