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Semester 3 > PP4 > Flashcards

PP4 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 macromolecules? What is a macromolecule?

A

proteins
nucleic acids
carbohydrates
lipids

Macromolecules are large organic polymers formed from monomers, or subunits. Formed by polymerization reactions, which are chemical reactions that link two or more small molecules to form larger molecules with repeating subunits

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2
Q

What breaks down macromolecules?

A

Catabolic pathways break down these macromolecules. We derive energy from the catabolism of glucose and we use the energy, available as ATP, to make our own macromolecules through anabolic (building) pathways.

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3
Q

What are the basic functions of each macromolecule?

A
  • proteins: Provide structural support and act as catalysts that facilitate chemical reactions
  • nucleic acids: Encode and transmit genetic information
  • carbohydrates: Provide source of energy and make up the cell wall in bacteria, plants and algae
  • lipids: Make up cell membranes, store energy, and act as signaling molecules
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4
Q

Most macronutrients are polymers. What is a polymer? How are the formed?

A
  • complex molecules made up of repeated simpler unites (monomers) connected by covalent bonds.
    Mono = one; poly = many; mer(e) = unit or part
  • Polymers are formed by a polymerization reaction by connecting monomers forming covalent bonds. In this step, water is removed, so the reaction is called a dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction.
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5
Q

How to you build and break polymers?

A

Building polymers: Dehydration (removing water) synthesis or Condensation reaction

Breaking down polymers: Hydrolysis reaction Hydro = water; lysis = cutting [hydrolysis adds water molecule, breaking bond]

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6
Q

What are the 8 proteins and an example of each?

A
  1. Enzymatic proteins: acceleration of chemical reaction (ex. enzyme)
  2. Defensive proteins: protect against deases (ex. antibodies)
  3. Storage proteins: storage of amino acids (ex. casein)
  4. Transport proteins: transports substances (ex. hemoglobin)
  5. Hormonal proteins: coordination of an organism activity (ex. insulin)
  6. Receptor protein: repose of cell chemical stimuli (ex. receptors)
  7. Contractile proteins: movement (ex. actin and myosin)
  8. Structural proteins: support (keratin)
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7
Q

What are the 4 components attached to the a carbon?

A
  1. animo group (a base)
  2. carboxyl group (acid)
  3. hydrogen
  4. R group (4 types) [One amino acid has hydrogen as an R group]
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8
Q

Where do the 20 animo acids used differ?

A
  • only in their R group

R-groups can be:

  • hydrophilic
  • hydrophobic
  • acidic
  • basic
  • “special”
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9
Q

What is a peptide bond? The formation of a peptide bond is what type of reaction?

A

A covalent bond that connect 2 animo acids together. Peptide bonds form between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the other.

Condensation reaction since it releases water and makes the 2 molecules “smaller”

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10
Q

What is a dipeptide and polypeptide bond?

A

dipeptide: molecule formed of two amino acids
polypeptide: molecule formed of many amino acids

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11
Q

Explain the primary structure of the protein.

A
  • its a linear sequence connected by peptide bonds
  • Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids
  • Each polypeptide chain has an N- terminal (amino) and a C-terminal (carboxyl).
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12
Q

Explain the secondary structure of the protein.

A
  • Interactions between stretches of amino acids lead to the formation of α helix and β sheets.
  • formation of H-bonds between the carbonyl group in one peptide bond and the amide group in another
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13
Q

Explain the tertiary structure of the protein. Hydrophobic? Hydrophilic?

A
  • Three-dimensional confirmation of a single polypeptide chain, usually made of several secondary structure elements
  • Determined by the spatial distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic “R groups” along the molecule
  • Hydrophobic amino acids cause the polypeptide to fold
  • Hydrophilic amino acids allow the formation of H-bonds (and other bonds) that hold cause the polypeptide together

(Ultimately determines the protein’s function!!)

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14
Q

Explain the quaternary structure of the protein. Dimeric and trimeric protein?

A

proteins that are composed of 2 or more polypeptide chains or subunits, each of which has a tertiary structure, and that also come together to form a higher-order quaternary structure

A dimeric protein has 2 N-terminals and 2 C-terminals.
trimeric protein has 3 C-terminals and 3 N-terminals) [antibodies]

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15
Q

What is denaturation? What is the primary structure preserved? What about renaturation?

A
  • Secondary, tertiary and quaternary (if present), determine its function
  • Most proteins can be unfolded, or denatured, by chemical treatment or high temperature that disrupt all but the peptide bonds. The primary structure is preserved, i.e., the amino acids remain connected.
  • Denatured proteins lose their functional activity.
  • Renaturation to a functional form rarely takes place.
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16
Q

What are the 2 types of nucleic acids?

A

DNA and RNA

  • > they differ in function and structure
  • > DNA (a polymer) consists of monomers called deoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs), which consist of a deoxyribose sugar, phosphate (1, 2, or 3) and a nitrogenous base
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17
Q

What is the difference between purines and pyrimidines?

A

Purines: have a double ring structure.
Pyrimidines: have a single ring structure.

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18
Q

What are the 4 things that DNA contains?

A
  1. all the information to program a cells activity
  2. directions for its own replication
  3. is copied and passed on from one generation to the next
  4. contains genes that code for instructions to make proteins
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19
Q

How are nucleotides linked together to form a DNA single strand?

A

phosphodiester bonds: is a covalent bond that connects the 3’ carbon of one nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the next nucleotide in the line through the 5’ phosphate group. This creates the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA strand.

  • Stable bonds that can withstand stress (heat and pH)
  • Give a DNA strand polarity: Negative phosphate group found on the 5’ carbon, Hydroxyl group found on the 3’ carbon
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20
Q

Explain the structure of DNA.

A
  • DNA in cells consist of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other in the form of a double helix
  • The two sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite directions: antiparralel
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21
Q

How are 2 strands held together? How do complementary base pair?

A
  • The two strands are held together by complementary base pairing and hydrophobic interactions
  • Complementary bases pair with each other through hydrogen bonds, allowing for the formation of the double helix.
  • A pairs with T with 2 hydrogen bonds, and G pairs with C with 3 hydrogen bonds
22
Q

What is base stacking?

A

The hydrophobic interactions between the flat bases stabilize the bases inside the helix (away from water!)

23
Q

What are the 3 types of bonds found in DNA?

A 
1. Phosphodiester bonds connect the
sugars and phosphates to make the
sugar-phosphate backbone
2. Hydrogen bonds between
complementary bases (A=T and GC
hold the two strands together.
3. Hydrophobic interactions of the flat
bases stabilize the helix
24
Q

Why is DNA double stranded?

A
  1. Two templates for copying (can store more information in less place)
  2. Very stable structure (protects the DNA from being degraded)
25
Q

What does RNA consist of?

A

RNA (a polymer) consists of monomers called ribonucleotides, which consist of a ribose sugar, phosphate (1,2 or 3) and a nitrogenous base

26
Q

Is RNA single or double stranded?

A

single. Single stranded RNA can fold on itself to form 3D molecules

27
Q

What are the 3 functions of RNA?

A
  1. used as a messenger of information (messenger RNA [mRNA])
  2. Involved in transporting amino acids according to the genetic code (transfer RNA [tRNA])
  3. involved in building new proteins (enzymatic function), (ribososnal RNA [rRNA])
  4. used as blueprints for some viruses
28
Q

What are carbohydrates? How are they classifed? Polar or non polar?

A
  • organic (carbon containing) molecules made of sugars and their polymers, which are formed by condensation or dehydration reactions
  • classified based on the number of simple sugars, mono, di and polysaccharides have a general formula of (CH20)
  • polar molecules due to the –OH groups
  • Used to store energy and for providing structure in plants, insects and fungi
29
Q

What is a monosaccharides? What is its ratio? Types of sugars? Which one is an isomer?

A

Simple sugars are called monosaccharides. All monosaccharides have C, H, O ratios of 1 : 2 : 1.

  • Pentose sugars (5 carbon atoms) share the same molecular formula C5H10O5
  • Hexose sugars (6 carbon atoms) share the same molecular formula C6H12O6
30
Q

What are examples of hexose sugars?

A

Examples of simple hexose sugars: glucose, galactose, fructose, mannose. They all share the same molecular formula. Sugars can have two configurations: chain or ring.

look at the configuration go OH to determine the difference
pp4, slide 49

31
Q

What are glycosidic bonds? What do they form between?

A

Monosaccharides are linked to each other forming disaccharides / polysaccharides through glycosidic bonds

Formed between the carbon #1 of one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group (OH) carried by an atom in a different monosaccharide

  • when a glycosidic bond forms between 2 a glucose molecules, water is removed.
32
Q

What is a disaccharide? What are the 3 common ones?

A

When two monosaccharides are linked by a glycosidic bond they form a disaccharide

3 common ones:

  1. Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
  2. Lactose (glucose + galactose)
  3. Maltose (glucose + glucose)
33
Q

What is a Polysaccharides. What are the 2 primary functions?

A

-Long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds

Functions:
1. energy storage
- Storage polysaccharides in plants are called starches (amylose and amylopectin)
- Storage polysaccharide in animals and fungi is called
glycogen

  1. Structural Support:
    - structural polysaccharide in plants is called cellulose.
    - Structural polysaccharide in fungi is called chitin
34
Q

How is the energy storage in plants? How is a starch polymer formed?

A
  • when a plant produce more a-glucose (by photosynthesis) then can use, they form an excess in the form of starch.
  • A starch polymer is formed of α-glucose monomers linked through glycosidic bonds
35
Q

What are the 2 types of starches for in plants (storage)?

A
  1. Amylose: A linear, unbranched (only α1-4 glycosidic bonds), helical polymer. It is not a double helix, it just forms this structure in a solution.
  2. Amylopectin: A branched polymer. The branch points use an α 1-6 glycosidic bond to connect the glucose monomers. α1-4 glycosidic bonds are found in the linear portions of the molecule
36
Q

Explain energy storage in fungi and animals.

A

When fungi and animals absorb/ingest more α-glucose than they can use, they store some of the excess in the form of glycogen

Glycogen is a highly branched polymer composes α-glucose monomers linked through α1-4 glycosidic bonds. Like amylopectin, glycogen has α1-4 glycosidic bonds, and α1-6 glycosidic bonds form the branch points

37
Q

In mammals, what is glycogen stored in?

A

[Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide]

  1. Liver cells (hepatocytes)
    - When blood sugar gets low, the pancreas releases glucagon that causes the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood stream
  2. Muscle cells
    - Glycogen stores are only used for the muscle cell itself.
38
Q

What is amylase?

A
  • Amylase is an enzyme that allow animals to digest (hydrolyze) starch
  • Amylase can only hydrolyze α1-4 glycosidic bonds
  • Amylase ( amylase hydrolyzes amylose)
39
Q

What do plants purposefully produce?

A

Plants purposefully produce β-glucose monomers and link them together forming the polymer cellulose.

A cellulose polymer is formed of β-glucose monomers linked through β1-4 glycosidic bonds

40
Q

4 fun facts about cellulose:

A
  • Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide that forms the principle component of a plant’s cell wall.
  • Due to the β1-4 glycosidic bonds that link the monomers, cellulose is indigestible to animals
  • Bacteria, fungi and some protists (decomposers) have the enzyme cellulase that digests cellulose
41
Q

Structural support in fungi:

A
  • Chitin forms an important component of a fungi’s cell wall
  • Due to the β1-4 glycosidic bonds that link the monomers, chitin is indigestible to most animals
    Bacteria and fungi produce the enzyme chitinase, which allow them to digest chitin
42
Q

what is the function of neutral lipids?

A
  1. Energy storage (very efficient!)
  2. Insulationforcold
  3. Protection of internal organs
43
Q

what are the 3 lipid groups?

A

are a diverse group that includes fats, phospholipids and steroids
• are not true polymers
• are formed by dehydration reactions
• are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
• are categorized in three groups
1. Neutral, or true fats a. Fatty acids
b. Glycerol 2. Phospholipids 3. Steroids

44
Q

Neutral facts are construed by 2 types of molecules:

A
  1. Fatty Acids: The “fatty” part is hydrophobic because of all the non-polar covalent bonds. This is the non-polar part and is not soluble in water. Fatty acids are amphipathic because they are non-polar at one end, and polar at the other
  2. Glycerol:The carboxyl group is the acid part, because the hydrogen often leaves, making it an acid. It is hydrophilic because of the polar covalent bonds and this part is soluble in water.
45
Q

What is an ester bond?

A

Fatty acid molecules can be linked to a glycerol molecule through a condensation or dehydration synthesis reaction forming an ester bond

46
Q

monoglyceride? diglyceride? triglyceride?

A

Number of fatty acids per glycerol can range from 1 to 3.
1 = monoglyceride
2 = diglyceride
3 = triglyceride
Triacylglycerol is a lipid used for energy storage.

47
Q

Saturated Fatty Acids

A
  • The carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are connected to each other by single covalent bonds and thusly, able to bind to their full compliment of hydrogen atoms (saturated with hydrogen).
  • Because they form linear molecules, they can easily stack, forming temporary van der Waals interactions that stabilize the molecules, making them solid at room temperature.
48
Q

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A
  • Although many of the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are linked by single bonds, some carbon atoms are linked by double bonds and therefore do not have their full compliment of hydrogen atoms (unsaturated)
  • The presence of the double bond gives the molecule a “kink” preventing them from stacking well, making them liquid at room temp.
49
Q

Trans fatty acids

A

Trans fatty acids are produced when unsaturated fatty acids are processed to increase their stability by adding more hydrogens, but not enough to make them saturated. Margarine, vanaspati ghee, bakery and frying fats and vegetable shortenings contain trans fatty acids.

TFAs:
• pack more tightly than
unsaturated fatty acids which has a negative influence on the membrane of the cell. TF
• raise low density cholesterol (LDL) levels
• contribute to inflammation
• contributes to cardiovascular
disease

50
Q

What is the function and structure of phospholipids?

A

Function:
• Major constituents of cell membranes.
• Forms lipoproteins.

Structure:
• 2 fatty acid molecules
• 1 glycerol molecule
• 1 phosphate molecule
• 1 charged variable group
51
Q

What is the function and structure of steroids?

A

Function:
• Constituentsofcellmembranes(cholesterol)
• Components of vitamins (ex. Vitamin D)
• Components of hormones (ex. Growth hormones, sex hormones)

Structure:
• Made from sterol: four fused rings composed of 20 bonded carbon
atoms bonded.
• In the cell membrane, cholesterol helps to maintain a flexible
membrane and serves as a space filler to prevent leakage into or
out of cell.

Semester 3 (9 decks)

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