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Weather and Climate > Powerpoints > Flashcards

Powerpoints Flashcards

1
Q

Geostationary Satellites (GOES)

A

Stationary with respect to a fixed point on Earth’s surface (revolves at the same rate as Earth)

Farm from earth (~36,000 km away) => coarse spatial resolution, but good temporal sampling

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2
Q

Polar Orbiting Satellites

A

Orbit the earth from pole to pole

Closer to the Earth (~900km) => better spatial resolution, poorer temporal sampling

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3
Q

Study Surface Station Model Diagram

A

in powerpoints 1

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4
Q

90% of earth’s atmosphere (by mass) is below ________

A

16km (10 miles)

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5
Q

Weather

A

Specific state of the atmosphere at a given time/place

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6
Q

Climate

A

Accumulation or average of weather conditions over a long period of time

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7
Q

What is the atmosphere?

A

A fluid

A thin layer surrounding the Earth

Mainly a mixture of invisible gas with some solid and liquid particles, that stays in place due to the force of gravity

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8
Q

Major permanent gases of the atmosphere

A

Nitrogen N2 - 78%

Oxygen - O2 - 20%

Argon - Ar - 0.9%

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9
Q

Source of Nitrogen

A

Bacterial dentrification during decay of biological matter

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10
Q

Sink of Nitrogen

A

N-fixation by lightning, fires, or bacteria

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11
Q

Sources of Oxygen

A

Photosynthesis

Photolysis

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12
Q

Sink of Oxygen

A

Oxidation

Decomposition

Respiration

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13
Q

Hydrogen/Helium:

A

Earth’s first ATM ( probably)

light => easily escape Earth’s gravity

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14
Q

Water in the Atmosphere

A

Greenhouse gas

Variable concentration

Invisible

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15
Q

Carbon Dioxide

A

Greenhouse gases: “Trap” energy in lower atmosphere

Anthropogenic: caused by human activity

CO2 increases with plant decay during winter

CO2 decreases with plant growth during summer

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16
Q

Aerosols

A

Particles suspended in the air (dust, soot, salt)

Provide “nucleus” for cloud droplet formation (cloud condensation, nuclei, or CCN)

Can shade surface

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17
Q

Earth’s early atmosphere:

A

H2, He

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18
Q

Volcanic outgassing and the origins of our oceans:

A

CO2, H2O, and some N2

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19
Q

Life and the origin of our present atmosphere:

A

Drawdown of CO2, increase in O2

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20
Q

How old is the Universe:

A

~10 - 20 Ga (billions of years) 13 in specific

How do we know? - expansion, and the hubble constant

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21
Q

Earth’s First ATM

A

Earth forms via acretion (stuff clumps together)

Whatever happened to be hanging around at the time (H2)

Atmosphere rapidly lost to space; ripped off planet by bombardment

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22
Q

Earth’s second ATM

A

Volcanism and Heavy Bombardment (4.5-3.8 ga)

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23
Q

Earth’s third ATM

A

3.8 - 3.5 ga

LIFE!

Cyanobacteria

Photosynthesis

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24
Q

Red Beds

A

Form in more oxygen-rich environments (1-2% ATM)

Start around 2 Ga

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25
Q

Banded Iron Formations

A

Form in oxygen-depleted water environments (1-2%)

Stop around 2 Ga

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26
Q

Ultraviolet radiation does not permit =>

A

life on land, or in surface locations

O3 (ozone) layer is needed

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27
Q

As oxygen increases =>

A

Ozone increases via photochemical reactions

=> Ozone layer

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28
Q

What next?

A

Early life: anaerobic bacteria (photosynthesis)

Aerobic bacteria develop ~2 Ga (respiration)

Eukaryotic cells develop ~1.5 Ga

~0.5-0.1 Ga meiosis (sexual reproduction)

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29
Q

~600Ma - Present =>

A

Life takes off

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30
Q

Vertical sounding

A

Measurement of how temperature changes with height in the atmosphere

Water balloons lift “radiosondes” into the air

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31
Q

Graph with two bars

A

Right bar on graph is Temperature

Left bar on graph is Dewpoint Temperature

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32
Q

Lapse Rate

A

Rate at which temeprature decreases with height (positive when temperature gets colder with height)

Typically ~6.5C in the troposphere

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33
Q

Temperature Inversion

A

Vertical layer of the atmosphere where temperature increases with height

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34
Q

Lowest pressure ever recorded in the Atlantic

A

882 Mb

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35
Q

Density =

A

Mass / Volume

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36
Q

Pressure =

A

Force / Area

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37
Q

Force =

A

Mass * Acceleration

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38
Q

Weight =

A

Mass * Gravitational Acceleration

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39
Q

Pressure:

A

supports weight of air above a given location

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40
Q

Order of Atmosphere

A

Thermosphere

Mesopause

Mesosphere

Stratopause

Stratosphere

Tropopause

Troposphere

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41
Q

Troposphere

A

Tropo (turning) sphere - where weather happens

  • heated from below

Lapse rate = ~6.5 C/km

Tropopause: where temperature stops decreasing (isothermal layer)

~16 km in the tropics

~6km in polar regions

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42
Q

Stratosphere

A

Stratum (layer) sphere - no weather

Temperature increases with height (inversion)

  • heated from above by ozone

Stratopause: where temperature stops increasing

=> ~50 km in the tropics

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43
Q

Weight of water per cm^2

A

10g/cm^2

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44
Q

Air pressure:

A

1013 g/cm^2

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45
Q

Energy

A

The ability to do work

units: Joules, or calories

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46
Q

Potential energy

A

Potential to do work

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47
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy of motion

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48
Q

Internal (thermal) energy

A

Energy of molecular motion in a substance

ex. random “jiggling”

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49
Q

Internal energy “Heat”

A

Total energy produced by random motions of molecules and atoms; total kinetic energy of a sample

“Energy of random jiggling”

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50
Q

Conservation of Energy

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed - it can only change forms

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51
Q

Temperature

A

Measures the average kinetic energy of molecule in a substance (related to average molecular speed)

~500m/s at room temperature

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52
Q

Heat Capacity

A

Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of an object 1 degree Celsius

=> proportional to mass

=> Depends (somewhat) on composition

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53
Q

Specific Heat

A

Amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram of an object 1 degree Celsius

=> not proportional to mass

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54
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics: Ch

A

Change in Internal Energy =

Heat added to system

  • Work done by system
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55
Q

Why is beach sand so hot on a sunny day, but the water stays comfortable?

A

Same amount of heat added to both, so same change in internal energy

Sun’s energy absorbed in 1 cm of sand

  • Small mass, small heat capacity, large temperature change

Sun’s energy absorbed in 10 m of water

  • large mass, large heat capacity, small temperature change
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56
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

Heat will transfer from a warm object to a cold object

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57
Q

Three modes of heat transfer

A
  1. Conduction
  2. Convection
  3. Radiation
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58
Q

Conduction

A

Heat transfer from molecule to molecule

Conductivity: Rate of heat transfer across object

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59
Q

Conduction

A

Katabatic winds: Winds caused by cool air sinking down a slope

Air next to surface cools via conduction / radiation

Cold / dense air sinks down the slope

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60
Q

Convection

A

Heat transfer via fluid motions (hot air rises, cold air sinks)

Buoyant plumes are called “thermals”

If most buoyant air is already on top, convection does not occur (stable situation)

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61
Q

Advection

A

Heat transfer via horizontal fluid motion

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62
Q

Heat transfer via horizontal fluid motion

A

Advection

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63
Q

Latent heat

A

Heat required for a substance to change phase

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64
Q

Ice => vapor

A

Sublimation

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65
Q

Vapor => Ice

A

Deposition

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66
Q

Vapor => liquid

A

Condensation

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67
Q

Liquid => vapor

A

evaporation

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68
Q

Why does evaporation cool liquid water?

A

Only the most energetic molecules break free of attraction to other molecules

Remaining molecules are “less jiggly” on average, so temperature decreases

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69
Q

Condensation is a source of energy for ___________ in clouds

A

rising air

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70
Q

Latent Heat: Source of energy for hurricanes

A

Water vapor evaporates from warm ocean surface

Water vapor condenses (latent heat release) into clouds/rain

Latent heat release provides source of energy for hurricane intensification

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71
Q

Radiation

A

Energy transfer by electro-magnetic waves

Dual personality: can be thought of as

  • wave (electric and magnetic field)
  • packet of photons (photon: a discrete bundle of energy)

*Ultimate source of energy (from Sun) to Earth

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72
Q

Wavelength

A

Distance between crests of electromagnetic radiation

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73
Q

Hotter objects emit more ______________

A

radiation

*Stefan-Boltzman

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74
Q

Wien’s law

A

Hotter objects => shorter wavelengths

Sun => “shortwave” radiation

Colder objects => longer wave lengths

Earth => longwave radiation

*warmer objects have maximum emission at shorter wavelengths

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75
Q

The Sun radiates more energy with _________ wavelengths

A

short

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76
Q

The Earth radiates more energy with _________ wave lengths

A

long

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77
Q

Fate of Incoming solar radiation

A
  1. Absorption
  2. Scattering
  3. Reflection
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78
Q

Absorption

A

Incoming radiation absorbed by molecule or particle in the atmosphere (or at the ground)

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79
Q

Scattering

A

Incoming radiation interacts with molecules or particles in the atmosphere and is sent in all directions

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80
Q

Reflection

A

Incoming radiation reflects back to space

Albedo - fraction of radiation that gets reflected

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81
Q

Albedo

A

Fraction of radiation that gets reflected

= Amount of reflecting radiation / Amount of incoming radiation

Bright (ice, snow) => High albedo

Dark (wet dirt, water) => low albedo

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82
Q

Radiative Equilibrium

A

Balance between incoming shortwave and outgoing longwave radiation

Shortwave absorbed = longwave emitted

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83
Q

Radiative equilibrium temperature:

A

Temperature required for radiative equilibrium

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84
Q

Selective Absorption

A

Capability of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to absorb and emit longwave radiation, but only at selected wavelengths

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85
Q

The Greenhouse Effect

Sun-to-Earth

A

Shortwave radiation from the sun is trasmitted through the Earth’s atmosphere, and absorbed at the surface

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86
Q

The Greenhouse effect

Earth-to-atmosphere

A

Earth radiates energy to the atmosphere

Some passes through, but most is absorbed by the atmosphere, warming the atmosphere

Also, energy is transferred to the atmosphere via convection, warming the atmosphere

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87
Q

The Greenhouse Effect

Atmosphere

A

Energy is radiated back to earth and to space

Additional energy available to warm the surface

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88
Q

Thre Greenhouse Effect Equation

A

Shortwave absorbed (solar) + Longwave absorbed (atmosphere) = Lonwave emitted (earth)

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89
Q

Selective Absorbers in the ATM

Oxygen and Ozone

A

Absorbs UV high in the atmosphere (Stratosphere and above)

Ozone absorbs around 9-10 um (in the atmospheric window)

90
Q

Selective Absorbers in the ATM

Carbon Dioxide

A

Absorbs infared radiation - plays an important role in the greenhouse effect

Absorbs wavelengths at greater than 13 um

Adding more CO2 gradually “fills in” the atmospheric window

91
Q

Selective Absorbers in the ATM

Water VApor

A

Most important greenhouse gas: absorbs throughout the infarred range

Absorbs wave lengths at <8 um and >13 um

Liquid water (clouds) absorb all IR wavelengths (why cloudy nights do not get as cold as clear nights)

92
Q

Anthropogenic

A

Human generated

93
Q

Greenhouse effect

Sun-to-earth

A

Shortwave radiation from the sun is transmitted
through Earth’s atmosphere, and absorbed at the
surface

94
Q

The Greenhouse Effect

Earth-to-Atmosphere

A

Earth radiates energy to the atmosphere

Some passes through, but most is absorbed by the atmosphere, warming the atmosphere

Also, energy is transferred to the atmosphere via convection, warming the atmosphere

95
Q

CO2 concentrations undergo _________________ over hundreds of millions of years

A

large fluctuations

96
Q

More Carbon Dioxide coincides with ____________

A

more temperature

97
Q

Emissions

A

Rate at which a particular gas is being added to the atmosphere

98
Q

Concentration

A

How much of that gas is actually in our atmosphere

99
Q

Chance in concentration =

A

Natural emissions + Anthropogenic emissions - Natural sink

100
Q

If sources exceed sinks:

A

Concentration increases

101
Q

Sinks of Carbon Dioxide

A

Ocean: Oceans absorb about 20% of emitted Carbon Dioxide. But Cold water absorbs more than warm water

Land: Growth of vegetation absorbs about 20% of emitted CO2 as vegetation grows (CO2 fertilization). CO2 fertilizaiton is limited as temperature increases

102
Q

Longwave emitted (earth) =

A

Shortwave absorbed (solar) + Longwave absorbed (atmosphere)

103
Q

How much warming should we expect?

A

Answer depends on:

  1. How much warming is produced by a doubling of CO2? ~2-4.5 degrees Celsius
  2. How much CO2 will we put in the atmosphere?
104
Q

Climate Sensitivity

A

The equilibrium global temperature change at doubling of CO2

105
Q

Earth’s orbit

A

Spins about its axis at a 23.5 degree tilt with respect to its orbit

North Pole faces the sun during (northern) summer, faces away from the sun during (northern) winter

Earth is closest to the sun at Perihelion (january 3) and farthest at Aphelion (July 4)

Receives ~6% more sunlight at Perihelion

106
Q

Angle of incidence

Zenith angle

A

Angle at which sunlight hits the earth’s surface

(measured from directly overhead)

Winter solstice 66.5 degees

Summer solstice 19.5 degrees

107
Q

Large zenith angle =>

A

Solar energy is spread over a larger area, so Less heating

108
Q

Smaller Zenith angle =>

A

solar energy is spread over a smaller area, so more heating

109
Q

Clouds and the diurnal cycle

A

Daytime: Reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface

Nighttime: Reduce the amount of longwave radiation excaping

110
Q

Water molecule:

A

Unique design gives rise to positive and negative polarity

Polarity => molecules are sticky

111
Q

Solid (ice)

A

Least energy

Molecules held together in crystal form (vibrate, but dont move around)

112
Q

Liquid

A

Molecules have more energy (they move around)

but still “sticky”

113
Q

Vapor

A

Molecules have much more energy

Bounce off each other rather than sticking together

114
Q

Humidity

A

How much water vapor is in the air

115
Q

How do we measure humidity?

A

Mixing ratio

Vapor pressure

Relative humidity

Dewpoint temperature

116
Q

Mixing ratio

A

ratio of the mass of water vapor in a given volume of air to the mass of other molecules in that volume

Mass of water vapor / Mass of dry air

Mixing ratio does not change if the temperature changes

117
Q

Evaporation __________ mixing ratio

118
Q

Condensation ___________ the mixing ratio

119
Q

Vapor pressure

A

“Partial” pressure exerted by only water vapor

120
Q

Water vapor exerts pressure on sides of container:

A

vapor pressure

121
Q

Eventually, rate of evaporation = rate of condensaiton:

A

saturation

122
Q

Saturation:

A

Occurs when rate of evaporation equals the rate of condensation

123
Q

Mixing ratio

A

Measures how much water vapor is actually in the air

124
Q

Saturation mixing ratio

A

Mixing ratio that air would have if it were saturated at its current temperature

125
Q

Warm air

A

more energetic molecules => higher saturation mixing ratio

126
Q

Cold Air

A

less energetic molecules => lower saturation mixing ratio

127
Q

Relative Humidity

A

Ratio of actual water vapor in the air to the amount of water vapor required for saturation

actual mixing ratio / saturated mixing ratio

128
Q

How do we change relative humidity?

A
  1. Change the amount of water vapor in the air
  2. Change air temperature
129
Q

What determines the saturated mixing ratio?

A

Actual temperature

130
Q

Actual mixing ratio is determined by what?

A

dew point temperature

131
Q

Dew Point Temperature

A

Temperature the air must cool to, to become saturated

132
Q

Actual mixing ratio determined by Dew Point Temperature

how to remember?

A

Q: how do we determine how much water is actually in the air?

A: Cool the air until condensation occurs, then measure it’s temperature

*this is the dew point temperature

133
Q

Problem: it’s harder to condense onto a curved surface than onto a flat surface

A

Solution: Some aerosols in the atmosphere facilitate droplet formation

134
Q

Aerosols

A

Small particles (dust, soot, sulphuric acid droplets, salt) suspended in the atmosphere

  • water does not readily condense into drops on its own
  • water DOES condense onto “hygroscopic aerosols”
135
Q

Continental Aerosols

A

>100,000 per cm^3, Anthropogenic 30% of all aerosols

Crustal Aerosols: erosion of earth’s surface (dust storms, desert)

Combustion and secondary aersols: anthropogenic activities; primarily N. America, Europe, Asia

Carbonaceous Aerosols: Soot, biomass burning, pollen, spores; many tropical sources

136
Q

Marine Aerosols

A

~1,000 per cm^3

Salt (as bubbles pop), Di-methyl sulfide (DMS)

137
Q

___________ aerosols over continental regions than over maritime regions

A

Many, many more

*For the same amount of liquid water in a cloud, continental clouds have smaller, and a lot more cloud droplets than marine

138
Q

Hygroscopic (water seeking)

A

Sulfate aerosols, salt

139
Q

Hygrophobic (water fearing)

A

Oils, gasoline, paraffin waxes

140
Q

Radiation fog

A

Cooling on clear nights

  • light winds required
  • Common in valleys
141
Q

Advection fog

A

As warm air is advected over a cold surface, it cools to the dewpoint temperature

142
Q

Evaporation / steam / mixing fog (frontal fog)

A

Form when water evaporates into the air, eventually saturating the air

  • Can occur with rainfall - associated with inversions and warm fronts
  • Also when cold air flows over a warm lake (steam fog)
143
Q

Upslope fog

A

Rising air cools to saturation

144
Q

Lifting mechanisms that form clouds

A

Most clouds form when air cools to the dew point as a parcel of air rises vertically as an updraft

145
Q

Lifting Condensation Level (cloud base)

A

As unsaturated air rises, it cools at 10 degrees Celsius/km

The dewpoint temperature cools at 2 degrees Celsius/km

Eventually, the actual air temperature catches up to the dewpoint, any further rising and condensation will occur

146
Q

Cloud base is _______________ difference between the temperature and the dew point (125 m per degree)

A

1 km per 8 degrees Celsius

147
Q

Ways that air can be forced upward

A

Orographic lifting

Frontal lifting

Convection

Convergence

148
Q

Orographic lifting

A

Air flows up over a mountain

149
Q

Frontal lifting

A

When less dense warmer air is forced to rise over coler, denser air

150
Q

Convection

A

Air near the surface warms and rises

151
Q

Convergence

A

When air near the ground converges, or is squeezed together, and rises

152
Q

Dry adiabatic lapse rate =

A

10 degrees Celsius / 1000m

*adiabatic means that no heat is added/removed from the parcel

153
Q

Dry Adiabatic

A

No heat is exchanged with the environment, no condensation - only work is done

154
Q

Moist adiabatic lapse rate =

A

6 degrees Celsius / 1000 m (in lower troposphere)

155
Q

Moist adiabatic

A

No heat is exchanged with the environment - work is done and latent heat is released

Latent heat adds 4 degrees Celsius per km

156
Q

Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN)

157
Q

Cloud droplets

158
Q

Rain drops

A

~2000 um (2mm)

159
Q

Largest raindrop ever recorded

160
Q

Condensation

A

Air cools to dew point, condenses into drops

161
Q

Saturated vapor pressure for flat surface is ________ than that for curvy surface

A

less

*very difficult for “more curvy” (small) drops to form than big drops

162
Q

Terminal Velocity

A

Occurs when gravitaitonal force equals force due to air resistence

163
Q

Air Resistence

A

Slows rate at which drops fall

Proportional to velocity times surface area

164
Q

Gravitational force

A

Causes rain drops to fall

Proportional to mass

165
Q

Terminal velocity is proportional to the ______________

A

size of the raindrop

166
Q

Large drops grow by colliding with small drops:

A

coalescence

167
Q

Thin clouds, weak updrafts

A

Small drops form, may produce drizzle

168
Q

Thick clouds, strong updrafts

A

large drops form, may produce heavy rain

169
Q

Cloud droplets don’t:

A

spontaneously freeze at sub-zero temperatures, until about -40 degrees Celsius

170
Q

May more ____________ than ice crystals in non-glaciated, supercooled cloud regions

A

liquid cloud droplets

171
Q

Saturated mixing ratio for liquid water drops is _____________ than that for ice

172
Q

Ice particle that happens to be next to a liquid water droplet

A

Air is saturated for the liquid water droplet

Air is super-saturated for the ice particle

=> ice particle GROWS

173
Q

Ice particles grow at the expense of ____________

A

liquid water droplet

174
Q

Accretion

A

Crystals grow as supercooled drops instantly freeze

Forms “graupel”

175
Q

Aggregation

A

Falling crystals stick together, form snowflakes

176
Q

Stratus

A

“Layer” => sheetlike clouds

177
Q

Cumulus

A

“Heap” => puffy clouds

178
Q

Cirrus:

A

“Hair” => wispy clouds

179
Q

Nimbus

A

“Rain” => rain clouds

180
Q

High clouds

A

Cirrus

Cirrostratus

Cirrocumulus

181
Q

Middle clouds

A

Altostratus

Altocumulus

182
Q

Low clouds

A

Stratus

Stratocumulus

Nimbostratus

183
Q

Clouds with vertical development

A

Cumulus

Cumulonimbus

184
Q

Stratus

A

like fog hovering above the ground

185
Q

Nimbostratus

A

Preciptating stratus

186
Q

Stratocumulus

A

low-lying clouds combining layered and convective cloud types

187
Q

Cumulus

A

Flat bases and intricately contoured domed tops

  • fair weather cumulus
  • cumulus congestus => tall relative to their width

– can produce brief heavy rain

188
Q

Altostratus

A

Layered clouds made up mostly of water droplets

189
Q

Altocumulus

A

Similar to stratocumulus with a higher base

190
Q

Cirrocumulus

A

Similar to altocumulus but made of ice and have smaller elements

191
Q

Cirrostratus

A

layerlike, uniform, made of ice

192
Q

Cirrus

A

Wispy, fibrous clouds made of ice

193
Q

Cumulonimbus

A

Thunderstorm clouds

  • extend to high altitudes
  • produce large amounts of precipitation, severe weather, and even tornadoes
  • flattened anvil shape of the top of the cloud
  • Under the anvil, sinking air may create pouches called mammatus
194
Q

Temperature is a measure of:

A

the average kinetic energy

195
Q

infared atmospheric window

A

Atmospheric gases only weekly emit and absorbe in the 10µm-12um

This spectral region is referred to as the infared atmospheric window because the atmosphere is relatively transparent to infared radiation emitted by the surface at these wave lengths

196
Q

Greenhouse gases

A

Gases that are transparent to solar energy while absorbing terrestrial energy will warm the atmosphere because they allow solar energy to reach the surface and inhibit longwave radiation from reaching outer space

examples: CO2, water vapor, ozone, nitrous oxide, and CFCs

Methane and CFCs are important despite their small concentrations

197
Q

What factors influence temperature cycles?

A

Latitude

Surface type

Elevation and aspect

Relation to large bodies of water

Advection

Cloud cover

198
Q

Diurnal temperature cycle

A

The repeating pattern of daily temperatures

Includes the maximum and minimum daily temperatures and the times of day that they usually occur

199
Q

Temperature inversions

A

Regions of the atmosphere in which the temperature increases with altitude

200
Q

Cloud Condensation nuclei (CCN)

A

Aerosols that asist in forming liquid droplets

examples: dust, salt, pollen, and other small particles

Ice nuclei - particles around which the ice crystals form, important in the beginning stages of ice crystal formation

201
Q

Fog Formation

A

Radiation fog

Advection fog - blown horizontally

Evaporation fog

Upslope fog

202
Q

Collission - Coalescence

A

The process by which precipitation forms in warm clouds

Drops of different sizes collide and merge, leading to rapid growth into a raindrop

203
Q

The Bergeron process

A

Ice particles grow at the epense of liquid water droplets

This occurs because the saturated vapor pressure over ice is less than that over liquid water

This process is most important in cold clouds

204
Q

Stages of a cyclone

A
  1. Birth (frontal wave)
  2. Young adult (open wave)
  3. Mature (occluded cyclone)
  4. Death (cut-off cylone)
205
Q

Cyclogenesis

A

The cycle of cyclone birth and growth

206
Q

Preferred regions of cyclone development

A

Panhandle Hooks (Colorado to Oklahoma and Texas Panhandles)

Nor’easters (develop along the East Coast over the Gulf Stream near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina)

Alberta Clippers (Pacific Northwest)

Pineapple express (jet stream blowing northeast from Hawaii)

207
Q

The Normal is:

A

The direction perpendicular to the surface

208
Q

Reflection

A

The incident angle with the “normal” equals the outgoing angle

209
Q

Refraction

A

Light slows as it enters a medium of greater density - speeds as it enters of medium of lesser density

*light bends toward the normal as it enters a more dense medium

*light bends away from the normal as it enters a less dense medium

210
Q

Refraction and Dispersion

A

Refraction and Dispersion: Refraction causes somewavenths to bend more than others: blue bends more than red light

211
Q

Scattering

A

Incoming light gets sent in all directions

212
Q

Why are sunsets red/orange

A

Near the horizon, light travels through more atmosphere than when directly overhead, so more blue light is scattered away

213
Q

Crepuscular Rays

A

Light is “equaly scattered” by large particles

214
Q

Mirages: Refraction

A

Sunrise / Susent occur about 2 minutes before / after than the sun actually passes above / below the horizon

215
Q

Inferior Mirage:

A

Light enters a LESS dense medium (very warm near surface

216
Q

Superior Mirage

A

Light enters a LESS dense medium (through a surface inversion)

217
Q

Halos and Sundogs

A

Light refracts through columnar ice crystals high in the atmosphere

218
Q

Sundogs

A

Occur when light refracts through hexagonal ice crystals high in earth’s atmosphere

219
Q

Rainbows

A

Occur when sunlight enters a raindrop and the light bends (refraction) then reflects off the back of the raindrop

220
Q

Rainbows are at the apex of a ____________ degree angle between you and the sun

221
Q

hen do secondary rainbows form?

A

When there is a double internal reflection

Weather and Climate (10 decks)

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