Power

Question 1

Political Power

Answer 1

Held by politicians, police, those involved in law courts

Question 2

Personal Power

Answer 2

Those who have power because of their occupation or role e.g. teachers, employers, parents

Question 3

Social Power

Answer 3

Those who have power because of social variables e.g. class, gender, age

Question 4

Ideology

Answer 4

A set of belief systems, attitudes or a world view held by an individual or groups

Question 5

Rhetoric

Answer 5

Effective or persuasive speaking or writing
In sentence: He is using a common figure of rhetoric, hyperbole

Question 6

Direct address

Answer 6

Name, ‘you’, ‘your’

Question 7

Facts and Statistics

Answer 7

Show knowledge/research, how much they care about the field of the discourse, add realism,

Question 8

Emotive/Loaded language

Answer 8

Rhetoric used to influence an audience by using words and phrases with strong connotations

Question 9

Hyperbole

Answer 9

Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally e.g. “So hungry i could eat a horse”, “Seen this movie a hundred times”

Question 10

Litotes

Answer 10

Emphasises a point by stating a negative to further affirm a positive e.g. “I don’t hate it”, “That wasn’t half bad”

Question 11

Rhetorical questions

Answer 11

Questions asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to make a point rather than to get an answer e.g. “What time do you call this?”, “Do birds fly?”

Question 12

Anecdote

Answer 12

A short amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person
Power: word of mouth, adds realism

Question 13

Tripling

Answer 13

Structure: beginning, middle, end
Lexis: e.g. ‘scared, lonely, distressed’

Question 14

Collocation

Answer 14

A natural combination of words that are closely affiliated (associated) with each other e.g. “pay attention”, “fast food”, “make an effort”, “powerful engine”

Question 15

Syndetic and Asyndetic listing

Answer 15

Syndetic: listing connected with conjunctions e.g. A man with no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head
Asyndetic: listing connected with a comma instead of a conjunction e.g. A man with no hat, with broken shoes, with an old rag tied round his head

Question 16

Jargon

Answer 16

Special words or expressions used by a profession or group that are difficult for others to understand e.g. medicine, politics, music

Question 17

Alliteration

Answer 17

Occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words e.g. ‘bounced the ball at the backyard bbq’

Question 18

Inclusive/Exclusive pronouns

Answer 18

Including/Excluding certain audience e.g. by gender

Question 19

Power in and behind discourse - Fairclough (2001)

Answer 19

In: the way power is presented through language
Behind: the focus on the social and ideological beliefs that cause the power to occur e.g. gender, class, age etc

Question 20

2 types of power in Discourse - Fairclough (2001)

Answer 20

Instrumental: enforces authority and is imposed by the laws, state, conventions and organisations e.g. “Shut up now!”
Influential: persuasive and inclines or makes us want to behave in a certain way e.g. “Please do not touch the red paint”

Question 21

Synthetic personalisation

Answer 21

Personalised language that helps to ‘connect’ with the audience and strengthen the persuasive intention e.g. second-person pronoun ‘you’ to construct a relationship between text producer and receiver, ‘have a nice day’, ‘welcome’

Question 22

Anaphora and Epistrophe

Answer 22

Anaphora (reinforces meaning): repetition occurring at the beginning of sentences/ clauses
Epistrophe (adds weight to idea, more memorable): repetition occurring at the end

Question 23

Power asymmetry/ Unequal encounter

Answer 23

Clear difference in the power status of individuals involved in discourse
Relationships that have an unequal division of power

Question 24

Powerful/Less powerful participant

Answer 24

Powerful: a speaker with higher status in the context, they can impose power
Less powerful: a speaker with less status in the context, they are subject to the constraints imposed on them

Question 25

Constraints

Answer 25

Ways in which powerful participants block or control the less powerful participants e.g. interrupting, leading questions, confrontational declaratives

Question 26

Constraints examples

Answer 26

Leading questions, Jargon, Reformulating response, First name usage, Topic/Exchange control, Back-channelling (‘ok’), First person plural pronouns (reinforce cooperation), Colloquial language, IRF (Coulthard and Sinclair)

Question 27

Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF)

Answer 27

I - “How are you?”
R - “Fine thanks. You?”
F - “Yeah, alright thanks.”

Question 28

Insertion sequence

Answer 28

IRF isn’t always the case: when someone interrupts or the speaker adds an extra piece of information that doesn’t fit entirely with what is being said

Question 29

Reformulating responses (constraint)

Answer 29

Repeating what another has said using the same words or rephrasing in a more concise way using other terms without adding other concepts to the content

Question 30

Leading questions
(constraint)

Answer 30

Questions that prompt or encourage/suggest the answer wanted (implies there is a correct answer) e.g. “Our company’s pizza rolls are the best, aren’t they?”

Question 31

Topic control (constraint)

Answer 31

When a topic is initiated, it should be collectively developed by avoiding unnecessary interruptions and topic shifts

Question 32

First name usage (constraint)

Answer 32

Informal, lack of respect, close relationship

Question 33

Deontic and Epistemic modality

Answer 33

Deontic: when a modal verb is used to affect a situation, by giving permission etc e.g. ‘can go’
Epistemic: when a modal verb is used to express the speaker’s opinion about a statement e.g. ‘might’, ‘possibility’

Question 34

Face concept - Goffman (1955)

Answer 34

Face threatening: name calling, disobedient, talking back, protesting, command
Saving face: manners, greeting, agree, questioning

Question 35

Hedging (face concept)

Answer 35

Mitigating imperatives alter the strength of a demand by adding words e.g. ‘just’, ‘actually’

Question 36

Positive and negative face - Brown and Levinson

Answer 36

Positive: an individuals need to feel valued, liked and appreciated
Negative: an individuals need to not feel imposed on or have their freedom or actions threatened

Question 37

Face threatening acts (FTA)

Answer 37

When communication can damage a person’s sense of face or affect the needs of someones +/-tive face e.g. potential when asking someone to carry out a task or dealing with a sensitive issue

Question 38

Face theory - Goffman, Brown & Levinson (1970’s)

Answer 38

Politeness strategies a speaker might use to mitigate or avoid face-threatening acts

Question 39

4 politeness strategies

Answer 39

• Positive politeness
• Negative politeness
• Bald on record
• Off-record (indirect)

Question 40

Positive politeness/face examples

Answer 40

• complimenting
• congratulating
• agreeing

Question 41

Negative politeness/face examples

Answer 41

• hedging (indirectness) to avoid feelings of
• apologetic
• minimising imposition e.g. “it wont take long!”
  imposition on the listener
  When we appeal to a persons negative face we want to make them feel like they haven’t been taken advantage of
  e.g. “I know its a real pain, and i hope you don’t mind, but could you please print these off for me?”

Question 42

Face Threatening Acts (FTA) forms*

Answer 42

Verbal: words/language
Paraverbal: characteristics of speech e.g. inflection (change in pitch/tone)
Non-verbal: facial expressions or body language

Question 43

Bald on record

Answer 43

When there’s a sense of urgency (“watch out!!”), there’s a low risk of threat to the listeners face/ in the interest of listener (“your headlights are on!”) and close relationship (“eat up!”)

Question 44

Off-record/Indirect

Answer 44

The speakers’ intentions are implied and it’s up to the listener to interpret them, avoiding saying the potentially face-threatening act altogether
- relies heavily on pragmatics
S: “I have a headache”
L: “Oh dear. Here, take some of my painkillers.”

Question 45

Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson

Question 46

Adverbs to intensify (feelings)

Answer 46

“So so so difficult”
“Absolutely pride”

Question 47

Temporal and spatial adverbial

Answer 47

Time: ‘when’, ‘during’, tomorrow, last year, yesterday
Space: above, anywhere, above, below, here

Question 48

Adjectives

Answer 48

Base: big, good
Comparatives: bigger, better
Superlatives: biggest, best