POST MIDTERMS Flashcards
1
Q
What is conformity
A
good or bad, subjective;
2
Q
how do east vs west cultures see conformity
A
Western cultures=individualistic; focus on independence
Eastern cultures=collectivistic; focus on interdependence
Individualistic cultures see conformity as bad; collectivistic cultures see it as good
3
Q
three kinds of conformity
A
acceptance, compliance, obedience
4
Q
explain acceptance conformity
A
Not only do you agree with behavior, but you can visually see it and believe it is the right thing or norm
ie. rules about personal space, not talking in a library, not staring at a stranger
5
Q
explain compliance conformity
A
Sometimes we conform despite disagreeing with behaviour
Go along with group publicly, but privately font gagree or would rather not follow behaviour
Ie. nto wanted to dress formally for a wedding, but you do
6
Q
explain obedience conformity
A
Unlike compliance you dont have personal choice, follow orer without considering feelings or preferences
ie. military order form superior
Personal agreement doesn’t matter
7
Q
Sherif’s autokinetic effect study revealed what aboit ambiguity
A
Sherif thought way we see world is influenced by others around us
He thought we create our own reality but often look to others for guidance esp in ambig stitches
revealing that when faced with an ambiguous situation, we look to others for social guidance and accepted answers; question your own ideas based on others understandings
Tend to overlook answers to get the right answer; when n clear solution we rely on social influence to shape perceptions of reality
8
Q
social norms are
A
accepted ways of thinking feeling, and behaving in a group
Social norms are our rules or standards to guide our behaviour in a group (cialdini and trost 1998); not enforced by authority; powerful bc they tell us what we should do
9
Q
social norms are most noticeable when_____
A
violated
10
Q
reactions to norm violations are
A
disapproval, punishment, exclusion
11
Q
social norms are learned through
A
groups we belong to like family, school, community
12
Q
deutsch and gerard 1955 said 2 main motivation for conformity
A
- Normative influence (conform for social acceptance)
- Informational influence: conform bc we think its right thing to do
Through acceptance
We genuinely believe something
13
Q
Solomon asch line judgement
A
When we learn about famous studies we think so obvious
He thought that conformity in sherif’s exp was due to ambig sitch
Predicted that in a situation with an obvious answer, people would confidently stick to the correct answer; people often conformed to the obvious but incorrect answer
14
Q
hindsight bias
A
belief that once we know results, we could have predicted them all along
15
Q
explain motivation to conform through compliance
A
In solomons study, thought they were privately right but went along with group answer bc wanted to be part on in group
some people may have though they were genuinely wrong; questioned their perception, etc
Even if they think they’re right, don’t want to be part of the outgroup[
16
Q
informational influence
A
people conform bc they believe group has more accurate info than they do
Most people confirmed bc social pressure, wanted approval from others
17
Q
normative influence
A
conforming to be liked or accepted by others even if we don’t agree
18
Q
what is compliance
A
We publicly agree but privately disagree; to gain social acceptance and conform
19
Q
why do we comply with strangers? burger et al said we rely on 4_____ to decide how to act
A
heuristics; liking, similarity, reciprocity, high cognitive load
20
Q
compliance heuristics: liking
A
Liking: were more likely to go along w people we like
21
Q
compliance heruistics: similarity
A
Similarity: tend to conform to people who are similar to us
22
Q
compliance heuristics: reciprocity
A
Reciprocity: if women does is a favour we feel more inclined tio agree with theme
23
Q
compliance heuristics: high cognitive load
A
High cognitive load: reliance on heuristics and conform without thinking, peripheral route
24
Q
2 ways to create cohesion
A
to create cohesion
Common goals: group has to work gto common goal, more dependence an conformity
similarity : conform more to people like us; more similarities pointed out
25
what is unanimity
increased conformity; difficult to go against groups esp when everyines on same page; when you disagree with majority, causes stress and maybe -ive reactions so it feels easier to agree
26
what is self monitoring
how much attention we pay to our surroundings and adjust to fit in them
27
someone high in self monitoring behaviours will
be looking for social cues, expressing fake attitudes
28
Obedience factors
closeness of authority, dissent form others, legitimacy of authority
29
obedience factors: closeness of authority
physical presence or proximity of figure
30
obedience factors: dissent form others
when others disagree with authority figure, can make a big diff
31
obedience factors: legitimacy of authority
people more likely to obey when believe authority figure is legitimate
32
psychological reactance theory (PRT)
When freedoms threatened, we feel discomfort and want to regain freedoms; discomfort known as reactance
33
4 components of psychological reactance theory (PRT)
Presence of freedom; having freedoms, subjective
Threat or elimination of freedoms; feeling like you are or may be losing a freedom; more you value a freedom, stronger reaction will be
Arousal from reactance: third component arousal you feel from reactance; if you perceive string threat to your freedom, reaction stronger; observing someone else freedom being removed can trigger reactance
Restoration of freedom; restoring freedom you feel has been taken away; engaging in behavior being restricted;
34
boomerang effect
when strong takeaway of freedoms, strong resistance
35
Need for ______ explains why some choose not to conform
uniqueness; Culture that value individualism can motivate people to want to stand out
36
tripartite model of attitudes (TRI)
affective: emotional; our feelings toward a group or person
Cognitive; thoughts; our beliefs or ideas about them
Behavioural: actions we take based on those feelings and thoughts
37
how doe tripartite attitudes apply to attitudes of others; prejudices rep which components
affective: positive or negative feelings towards others
cognitive: thoughts or stereotypes about other groups characteristics
behavioural: behaviours that either support or go against those thoughts and feelings
prejudices are emotional (affective0 and thoughts (cognitive)
38
stereotypes are
Mental shortcut or belief about people in a particular group; cognitive component of an attitude (beliefs)
Can be positive (assuming elderly are wise); or negative (like thinking certain people are unfriendly)
39
stereotype threat
anxiety exp when you're aware others may have a negative stereotype about your group, eps when they are doing something that might reinforce the stereotype
- can affect anyone if a relevant negative stereotype is brought to their attention
Worry of confirming a stereotype can affect performance and lead to self fulfilling prophecy; fear of stereotype causes individual to act in ways that seem to conform it
40
avoid stereotype threat leading to fulfilment by
Teaching people that intelligence is malleable can help ppl focus on their own potential rather than worrying about stereotypes
41
prejudice is
affective component of the tripartite model of attitudes, meaning it involves emotions or feelings about a groups
Prejudice is when someone feels negatively about a group without necessarily acting on it
Feelings might be dislike, fear, hate but they stay internal
42
discrimination is
behavioural component of tripartite model, refers to actions taken based on those feelings and thoughts
When prejudice lease ti actions that harm, exclude,m or disadvantage members of a group
Unfair hiring practices, etc
43
prejudice and discrimination go hand in hand and are ____ always together
not always together; Many people have prejudiced thought sor feelings but dont act on hem bc social norms
Sometimes discrimination happens not bc if personal prejudice, but bc if specific requirements or standards(ie school society only accepts people with a certain GPA; won't get hired if you dont have required experience)
44
explicit vs implicit attitudes
Explicit attitudes: attitudes were consciously aware of anc can express; i hate horror movies
Implicit attitudes; hidden, automatic, and often unconscious attitudes taht we may not be able to recognize or easily admit
45
prejudice vs discrimination
Holding negative thoughts or feelings (prejudices) isn't illegal altho can be considered immoral: acting on these thoughts (discrimination) is illegal
46
racism in the workplace
treating someone unfairly due to their race or racialized features
Not hiring, firing, unequal pay, denying promotions, skipping training or laying off someone
47
four forms of racism
old fashioned, modern, aversive, symbolic
48
old fashioned racism
belief one racial group, usually white people, are superior to others leading to openly discriminatory practices
49
modern racism, 3 parts
subtler, only appears when feels socially acceptable, 3 parts
- Anti-black effect: underlying hostility to black people
- Resistance to african americans political demands: op to policies that aim to improve equality
- Denial of racisms existence: belief tat racism no longer impacts the ability of black people to succeed
50
aversive racism
denying personal prejudice while holding unconscious negative feelings toward another group; feel uneasy uncomfortable, or fearful around certain groups; people show more +ive reactions to members of their own groups
51
symbolic racism
ombines negative views of another group with values like individualism, prejudice is expressed in abstract terms rather than direct behaviour
52
4 parts to symbolic racism
Denial of continuing discrimination: believing racial discrim is no longer a problem
Belief in strong work ethic: people resp for own individual success; blaming inequality on people
Excessive demands: viewing civil rights efforts as too demanding
Underserved advantage: belief that certain groups get unearned benefits in attempts to provide equity
53
sexism is
sex based discrimination that occurs when someone is treated unfairly as a result of their sex/gender
Can be sexual harassment, offensive comments about a opersons sex or gender
54
ageism is
age based discrimination
Treating someone unfairly because of their age; in us teh age Discrimination employment act prevents employers from discriminating against those 40 plus
55
weight discrimination is
when someone is treated unfairly due to their weight or size; treatment in workplace, on social media, by healthcare professionals
56
disability discrimination is
when applicant or employee is treated poorly because they have a disability, history of disability or are believed to have a physical or mental impairment
57
stigma is
negative attitudes or unfair treatment people may experience bc they belong to certain social groups or have particular characteristics
Eg. face stigma bc they belong to ethnic group, belong to a subculture, etc
58
3 types of stigma
public, self, courtesy
59
public stigma and label avoidance
when society as a whole holds negative stereotypes about a particular group and discriminates against them
Label avoidance: sometimes people avoid seeking help or care because they want to avoid being negatively labelled (ie. i don't want people to think i'm crazy)
60
self stigma and why try effect
when people internalise society's negative views about their group, which can harm their self esteem, confidence and ability to cope
Why try effect: a person may feel despair, or why should i even try i'm not good enough
61
courtesy stigma
affects family members or others associated with someone who has a stigmatised characteristic
Eg. families of people with mental illness
62
mental illness stigma
stigma against mental illness leading to serious consequences
63
3 ways mental illness stigma manifests
Workplace discrimination: people with mental illness face hiring discrimination
Decreased help-seeking: many people avoid seeking mental health care bc of stigma
Increased social distance: stigma increases with age, which suggests anti-stigma efforts might be most effective if aimed at older adults
64
mental illness stigma can be combatted in 3 ways
Educational interventions: direct interaction with people who have mental illnesses, and education reduces stigma among medical students
Portraying treatment success: when mental health conditions like depression or schizophrenia are shown as treatable, public attitudes improve
The role of hope in recovery: for people with serious mental illnesses, stigma can lower self esteem and reduce hope, affecting their quality of life; replace -ive myths with facts about recovery with hope to build self esteem
65
social identity theory
Suggest people haven nat tendency to simply their social world by categorising people into groups
This process helps us make sense of complex social environments by creating prototypes for different groups
66
role of prototype sea categorization processes in social identity theory/building
Prototypes consist of general ideas about what constitutes a group based on a set of common features
In this process, we form in groups (those we belong to) and out groups (groups we don't belong to); then start to see similarities within our ingroups and differences between our in group and out groups
Categorization affect shoe we see ourselves, as we tend to adopt the characteristics and behaviours assoc with our in group
67
in group favouritism
we generally prefer our in groups ove rout groups; helps us feel good about ourselves and boats our self esteem
68
outgroup homogeneity effect
we see members of out groups as more similar to each other, while viewing out in group as more diverse
We don't know as much about out groups so we don't notice individual differences; but we have more contact with out group member , were less likely to see them as all the same
69
tajfel et al 1979 research in in-group vs outgroup found...
that we compare our in groups to out groups as a way of evaluating our social ID; when our group stands put in a +ive way it boosts self esteem
70
socialization is
the ways we learn the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours of our culture from a young age
71
Stereotypes and prejudice can be passed thru socialisation in 3 ways
observational learning, respondedt conditioning, operant conditioning
72
observational learning
People learn behaviours and attitudes by watching others
Bandura's Bobo doll experiment; children imitate aggressive adult behaviour
If a kid sees parent or important adult treating others poorly, they may adopt these negative beliefs and behaviours
Transmission occurs without explicit teaching, kids absorb these cues and may dev similar biases
73
respondent learning (3 stages)
Explains how we might link a neutral group to -ive qualities over time ans consists of 3 stages
Preconditioning
Conditioning
Post-conditioning
74
operant conditioning
involves learning thru the consequences of our actions; if we do something a specific outcome will follow
Outcome will either increase or decrease likelihood of repeating that behaviour
Reinforcement: strengthens or makes behaviour more likely in future
Punishment; weakens or makes a behaviour les slieklu in the future
75
four types of conditioning
Positive punishment; someoneting unpleasant is added after a behaviour, decreasing the likelihood itll be repeated
Negative punishment”: something pleasant is taken away after behaviour, ma=king it less likely in the future
Positive reinforcement: something pleasant is introduced after behaviour, to increase its likelihood of repetition
Negative reinforcement: something unpleasant is taken away as a result of a behaviour, making the behaviour more likely to be repeated
76
do prejudiced emotions or or thoughts predict prejudiced behaviours more often
Research suggests that intolerance towards certain groups is linked to -uve stereotypes; emotions like pity, envy, disgust and pride may actually be
Emotions predict behaviours related to prejudice twice as effectively as negative stereotypes; how we feel about a group can be more important than what we think about them
77
fiscke et al 2022 argued stereotypes can be understood thru 2 main dimensions
Warmth: how friendly or a approachable a group is perceived to b e
Competence: how capable or skills a group is perceived
They noted +ive and -ive stereotype scan coexist (ie. a group might seem warm, but incompetent or vice versa)
Different combinations of warmth and competence lead to unique emotional responses:
Pity: evoked when group seems warm but incompetent
78
Roel of status and competition
Subordinate groups may be seen as warm but lacking incompetence, giving advantage to privileged groups
Competitive out-groups may be viewed as competent but nor warm, leading to resentment from the ingroup
79
Social dominance orientation; methods
members of dominant groups often wish to maintain superior status over subordinate groups leading to
Intolerance towards outgroups
Lack of empathy or altruism
Support for conservative and nationalist policies
Resistance to social change
Higher prevalence of SDO in males compared to females
80
attribution theory and 2 types
explains how people understand the causes behind their own and others behaviour
dispositional, situational
81
attribution theory; situational
involved attributing behaviour to external factors, such as the environment or circumstances affecting the person
82
attribution theory dispositional
involves attributing behaviour to internal factors such as personality traits or characteristics of the person
83
fundamental attribution error
Occurs when we assume that someone's behaviour is caused by their disposition rather than considering situational factors
84
group serving bias
we evaluate the behaviour of ingroup and outgroup members differently
Ignores +ive actions of out groups, and attribute -ive aspects to their character
85
attributional ambiguity
confusion people may feel about whether they are being treated unfairly bc of their group membership
One experiment showed that attributing -ive feedback to prejudice can provide some emotional relief
86
how can prejudice and dicsrimmiantion be reduced?
Teaching tolerance is a way to reduce prejudice and discrimination by promoting respect, acceptance and appreciation for diversity
The teaching tolerance movement founded by the southern poverty law centre in 1991
by providing educators w resources
87
Intergroup contact theory
suggests that bringing conditioning groups together can help reduce bias and promote acceptance
87
contact hypothesis/intergroup contact theory proposed by who; 4 conditions required
gordon allport in the 1950s, known as contact hypothesis; for contact between groups to reduce prejudice, 4 conditions must be met;
Equal status
Common goals
Intergroup cooperation
Institutional support
88
pettigrew and trop 2006; intergroup contact
Found that intergroup contact is linked to lower levels of prejudice
+ive attitudes formed during intergroup interactions not only benefit the individuals directly involved but also extend to broader perception of the entire outgroup
89
aggression
any behaviour meant to harm another
Physical harm like hitting
Verbal harm like insults
Key to aggression is intent, acting with goal to harm
90
violence
using force to cause injury death or psychological harm
Can happen towards yourself, to others, to groups
Can take many forms; physical attack, emotional harm, neglect or deprivation
91
3 main types of aggression
instrumental, hostile, relational,
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instrumental aggression
about getting something, not necessarily hurting someone
Ie. child grabs toy forcefully, to get toy not to harm other kid
Aggression as means to an end
93
hostile aggression
when someone wants to cause direct harm to another person
Can include physical threats and actions
Main goal is harm itself
Relational aggression
94
relational aggression
Damaging someone's social life; damaging relationships, spreading rumours, exclusion from groups, name calling
Lasting effects on person social standing and seen often in teens
95
cyberbullying
aggression online or through tech liek social media, texting, video games
Embarrassing photos or harassment online
Can be anonymous reaching large audiences; hard for adults to monitor/fix
Severe effects due to persistent visibilty to many and hard to escape
96
crime
behaviour that are against rules of society and come with consequences or punishment
Range from cyber crimes online to violent acts like robberies or assault
Federal authorities ID diff types of crime each with specific harms/risks
97
types of crime
cyber crimes, civil rights violations, public corruption, organized crime, white collar crime, violent crime
98
cyber crime
suing computers r internet to harm others
Hacking, ID theft, spreading viruses online predatory behaviors
99
public corruption
government officials misuse of power
Accepting Bribes, manipulating elections, using public funds for private interests
Eg. fraud across borders or interfering with fair business practices
100
civil rights violations
someone is denied legal rights or treated unfairly, often by people in power like police
Excessive force. Hate crimes, failing to protect when required by law
101
organized crime
groups that operate illegal businesses to make money or gain power
Structured (hierarchy) or loosely organized (networks)
violence /corruption to protect interests and is difficult to track
102
white collar c rime
non-violent crimes committed by people in professional jobs
Corporate fraud, cheating investors/pyramid schemes
Involves lots of money and impacts many people
103
violent crime
: acts that cause physical harm, including gang violence, bank robberies, and assaults
Often most visible and has serious immediate effects on victims
104
workplace violence and risk factors
included any kind of threat, intimidation or physical harm that occurs on job site
Verbal and physical assaults, even homicide
Can affect employees, customers, and anyone in workplace
Healthcare workers
Law enforcement officers
People who work alone
Those who handle money
105
types of workplace violence
criminal intent, customer/client, worker on worker, personal relationship,
106
workplace violence: criminal intent
aggressor has no personal connection to workplace
Robbing a store, shoplifting, trespassing with harmful intent
107
workplace violence; customer/client
customers or clients becoming violent towards employees
Hospitals where patients might lash out, or retail where customers may be aggressive
108
workplace violence: worker on worker
conflicts between employees
Could be bullying, harassment, or physical altercations betwen workers
109
workplace violence: personal relationship
targeting people bc of personal issues, often outside work
Person w personal vendetta might bring conflict into workplace
110
bullying
when a person or group targets another with aggressive behaviour thats unwanted and repeated
Often power imbalance
Often thought of as happening in childhood or adolescence, but occurs across lifespan
111
types of bullying
Verbal bullying: using words to hurt someoen like teaisng, name calling, making threats
Social bullying: trying to damage someone's social standing; spreading rumours, exclusion, embarrassing them
Physical bullying: using physical actions like hitting, kicking, or damaging person belongings
112
school violence
serious physical harm, like injuries or deaths that happen on school grounds, on the way to or from school, or during school events
Most happens during transition times, before or after lunch
113
stats about school violence
About 50% of kids who commit violent acts at school give some kind of warning ahead of time
Firearms involves in school relation violence often come from the home or friends home
Critical issue bc homicide is second leading cause of death for young people age 5-18
114
domestic violence
Abusive behaviour by an intimate partner toward another, intending to control or intimidate them
115
results of DV
Putting down or shaming victim
Controlling money or gow victim dresses
Threatening to harm people or pets close to the victim
Forcing unwanted sexual acts ir limiting access to work or education
116
how many people abused per minute in us
20
117
sexual assault
any sexual penetration without consent
Consent means actively agreeing to sexual activity by saying yes
Situations where person cannot consent include having drugs or alcohol, passed out, or asleep
Consent must be clear and cannot be assumed
118
sexual assault stats
Approx ⅕ women and 1/71 men will experience sexual assault in their life
45-50% of survivors report being assaulted by someone they know, often an acquaintance or intimate partner
Sexual violence can start early with many survivors reporting incidents that happened before age 18
119
sexual harassment
unwelcome sexual advances requests fir sexual favours, or sexually charged comments and actiosn
In workplace, situations where there's pressure to comply with these advances as a condition of employment or advancement
120
aggression can be explained using the ___ theory
attribution; explaining behaviors by attributing to internal traits (dispositional attributions) or external circumstances (situational attributions)
Disposition reasons
121
instincts in aggression
our actions, thoughts and desires are biologically driven, influenced by genetics
William mcdougall (1871-1938) argued humans are naturally inclined to pay attention to important stimuli, pursue goals and act upon them
This is all based on darwinian principles; survive and reproduce
122
freuds perspectives on instincts
2 instincts; life instinct (eros): basic needs, hunger thirst, sex and self preservation and death instinct (thanatos): destructive forces tat can be directed inwards like self harm or out like aggression
123
freuds perspective on instincts and id, ego...
Instincts creat pressurem, the resulting discomfort needs to be alleviated, leading to pleasure when satisfied (Id)
But societal norms (super ego) often repress sexual and aggressive instincts
Ego manages these 2
124
freud and repression, main mechanism
To cope with repression, people use ego defence mechanisms (humour with aggressive or sexual themes) or dreams
Displacement: people channel their aggression towards a substitute target when they cannot confront the original source of their anger
125
freud defence mechanisms
Denial: repsonse to difficulty, refusal to accept pairnful or distressing truth
Displacement: transfer burgers and emotions to object that didnt trigger is, less threatening
Rationalisation: pattern of lgoically explaining painful truths
Intellectualisation: focusing on intellectual components, to distance from distressing emotions
Suppression: decision to not dwell on amemory, emotion, thought
Repression: lack of awareness of ones internal thoughts or external experiences
Projection: attributing ones own undesirbal feeling/thought onto another
Reaction formation: replacing painful emtio wtoh opposite emotion
Regression: reverting to patterns of thinking/behvaing used at previous dev stage
Sublimation: unacceptable emotobns/desires are converted into acceptable activities
126
unconscious motivation
suggesting of our impulses are repressed in the unconscious mind
Repressed thoughts may not reach consciousness, which rases questions about whether were aware of what frusturatios influence oyr behaviour
127
levels of consiousness
s of consciousness
Unconscious
consciousness
Preconsciou
128
behaviourism emerged with who, rejecting what
John b watson: initially accepted idea of instincts but later rejected, arguing all behavior is result of environmental conditioning not innate instincts
129
what three neurobiological aspects influence aggression
amygdala : responsible for processing emotions, has been connected to aggression
People with smaller amygdala volume cire higher on aggression scales
Ie those with intermittent explosive disorder show heightened amygdala activity when viewing angry faces
Hypothalamus: implicated in memory
Region may trigger aggression in response to certain situations or threats
Testosterone: hormone associated with aggressive and dominant behaviours
adolescents : higher testosterone levels combined w larger body mass are linked tri increased social dominance and aggression n adolescents
In one study, male college students who held gun had greater spike in testosterone levels and displayed more aggressive beaviour compared to thos ehwo handled a toy
130
is aggression heritable? explain gene-environment interaction
Twin studies show that 50-80% of aggressiveness sin kids can be attributed to genetics
About 20% is linked to shard environmental factors like fam upbringing
gene - environment interaction: certain genes or hormonal changes may increase aggression in specific environments but not in others
131
2 kind sof brain functions involved in aggression
Brian regions
Hypothalamus and limbic system can promote aggression
Frontal cortex helps inhibit aggressive impulses
Neurotransmitters
Serotonin: helps regulate aggression and its realse or reuptake can be adjusted ti increase or decrease aggression
Dopamine; plays role in aggressio by influencing arousal , learning, and memory processes
MAOA enzyme: mutations in this enzyme linked to increased aggression
132
what is the dark triad; connection to aggressive behaviour
Narcissism: need for admiration and special treatment, high self focus and low empathy
Machiavellianism: a person's willingness to manipulate others for personal gain
Psychopathy: personality marked by callousness, insensitivity, impulsiveness, poor self control
Together these traits often involve self promotion, emotional detachment, willingness to be aggressive
133
negative affect anf mood connection to aggression; social learning theory
Parent to child aggression: negative emotions linked to minor aggressive behaviors towards kids, often happening impulsively in response to stress
Social learning theory says that this will lead to the dev of aggressive tendencies in kids
Helping parents manage emotions through +ive coping strategies could reduce such behaviours
Highlights how negative mood can lead to aggression (berkowitz and thome 1987)
134
hostile attribution bias
Quick to respond with aggression, esp if hey believe in neg reciprocity (eye for an eye idea)
In workplace employees with high hostile att bias and negative reciprocity beliefs were more likely to return aggression if they experienced rudeness and incivility form others
Those low in these traits were less likely to be aggressive, even if treated unfairly
135
aggression schemas
people dev schemas about aggression based on norms and social media and personal experience (social learning theory)
These schemas guide their expectations about aggression when aggression is acceptable and what it should look like
136
dehumanization and aggression
dehumanization involves seeing others as less than human; eg calling someone an animal, trash, vermin etc
Mindset can lead to higher aggression levels, as seen in studies where men tho associated women with animals were more likely to engage in harassment
137
what is rumination; link to aggression
repeatedly thinking about something, esp a -ive experience
Dwelling n perceived attack can lead to aggressive behaviour
Participants who ruminate i a provocation for 25 minutes speed mra aggression than those distracted
Included displacing anger into minor annoyance
Another study found that ruminating induces self control, making aggression more likely
138
excitation transfer theory
Excitation-transfer theory: arousal from one event can carry over to influence reactions in a later situation
Eg if someone experiences an adrenaline rush, they might feel still on edge after, leading to intense behaviors in other situations
In one study, people who engaged in physical activity (causing arousal) and experienced a strong provocation delivered stronger shocks to others
The lingering arousal from initial activity heightened aggressive response
139
'cultures of honour and aggression
Culture of honour: in some societies, protecting one's honor is most important; people expected to respond to threats with aggression to defend reputation, family or property
Cohen, nisbett, bowdle, schwarz 1996 studied male students at the uni of michigan
When bumped and insulted southern students were more likely than northern ones to feel rep was threatened; show increase in cortisol and aggression related (testosterone)
more aggressive when motivated top protect fam or rep that to protect masculinity
140
culture of honour and school violence
brown et al 2009 found students from us states with culture of honor were more likely to bring weapons to school
These states had higher rates of school shootings over 20 yr period
141
social learning and aggression
aggression also learned through imitation and observation
Plomin, foch an drowe 1981 found environmental influences not genetics were responsible for aggressive behavior
Children's behaviour reflects adult actions, highlighting importance of modelling peaceful behaviour to encourage non aggression
142
operant conditioning and aggression
aggression can be learned through rewards and punishments; ie Positive reinforcement; a kid who forcibly takes toy from another and enjoys playing may repeat behaviour to obtain what they want
143
furstration aggression hypothesis; 2 parts
frustration: when someone is blocked from reaching goal
Creates drive to act aggressively, helping to relieve frustration and restore emotional imbalance
Displacement: when direct aggressionisnt possible, people might redirect anger to a safer target life family, in freudfian process called displacemnt
Miller 1941 revised OG hypothesis; frustration doesn't always lead to aggression but increases its likelihood and of other responses
Berkowitz 1989 said frustration only cause aggression if it creates strong negative emotions and any adverse event can lead to aggression if it generates these feelings
144
social rejection and aggression
Need to belong: humans have needed to feel connected and accepted by others, when unmet leads to emotional pain and health issues
Twenge and campbell 2003 indicate social rejection can lead to increased aggression esp inn people with high levels of narcissism
Eg. narcissists more likely to respond with anger and aggression towards those who reject them
145
self esteem _____ predict aggression in response to social rejection
does not
146
alcohol and aggression; 3 reasons its a risk factor
Disinhibition: dulls the brain's ability to control impulses, leading to aggression; alc paralyzes the breaks that normally inhibit
Expectancy effects: people may expect those who are intoxicated to act aggressively, allowing them to excuse their actions by blaming a;cohol
Impaired functioning: alcohol can affect judgement and reduce self awareness, making it harder to assess risks accurately, which can lead to aggression
147
media and aggression
Effects of violent media: watching violent tv can make kids less empathetic, fearful of surroundings, and more likely to act aggressively
Exposure to media violence can also desensitize people leading to reduced emotion response
cooperative games like halo 2 can encourage pro sociality and helping
148
temp and aggression
Weather conditions, particularly high temperatures can influence aggressive behaviour
Anderson deuser and deneve 1995 found hot weather linked to increased hostile thoughts and feelings, heightened physiological arousal and decreased positive feelings
This can lead to biased interpretations of social situations, making people more likely to be aggressive
149
crowding and aggression
feeling crowded, where there isn't enough space, can cause stress and may lead to aggression
Studies have shown this effect in various settings including nightclubs, psychiatric wards, prisons, neighbourhoods
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pros of punishment
Consistency: Is punishment is consistently applied to undesired behavior, it can reduce the act
Deterrent effect: effective punish can deter some criminals form reoffending
Threat of punishment: after a few punishments, just the threat of it may be enough to reduce behavior
Severity: often act of being punished is sufficient, rather than severity of it
Vicarious learning: people can learn from seeing others punished
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cons of punishment
Inappropriate admin: is misapplied, punishment is ineffective; misapplied bc emotional states; ie parent punishes kid bc of their stress
Emotional responses: recipients may react w anxiety, fear or anger,m which can gen to the whole situation
Temporary effectiveness: punishment often only works while the punishing authority is present, misbehaviour ay resume in their absence
Delayed punishment: immediate behaviour may be difficult to punish, leading toi reinforcement of bad behaviour in the meantime
Lack of guidance: punishment does not instruct person on how to behave properly
Reinforcement of negative behavior: sometimes, punishment can inadvertently reinforce a behaviour such as a kid acting out for attention 2
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do maladaptive behaviours exist
no, all behaviors are adaptive, just some may be less healthy than others; some things like self-injury help in the moment, but there are better methods of coping
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in terpersonal attraction is multiple things
Attraction is not simply sex, cognitive element; do you want to be around them, spend time with, are drawn to
We enjoy hanging out with those who are kind to us, funny; friends, romantic partners
A kind of ‘magnet’ pushes us to or pulls us from certain people
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need for affiliation and need to belong
Maslow's need to belong; close to people that accept you
Humans are social, all have need to form relationships
Affiliation: we connect w people who accept us, but we aren't super close; coworkers classmates
Belonging: deeper connection with people who care about us; family, best friend, or romantic partner; emotional bond
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leadership and affiliation
Those who have strong need to affiliate care a lot about connecting with others
They focus more on teams needs and inspire others in transformational way
Lead by motivating and supporting their followers not just giving orders
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online courses and affiliation
Those who have high need for affiliation don't enjoy online courses as much; prob bc miss face to face interaction
Those who like working independently prefer online learning
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religiosity and need for affiliation
Reli people seek more social connections
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fear of exclusion and attraction
Fomo; if someone fears being left out of group, they may go to great lengths to fit in; may go into high people pleasing mode, seeking validation; may try to change group affiliation from outgroup to in group
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perception of distance and affiliation
When someone has a strong need for affiliation, they may feel others are closer to them emotionally even if they're not physically close
If you need proximity to feel close to people, you'll have trouble engaging form a distance
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loneliness and attraction
Happens when we feel like our relationships aren't meeting our emotional needs; feeling may not always represent reality
Can be distorted by emotion; if feeling emotional response ans no one can absolve you of it, this can lead to loneliness
Loneliness is subjective
even if surrounded by people, we can still feel lonely, therefore loneliness is about our interpretation of our situation
; toughest for immigrants and elderly
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3 forms of loneliness
situational, developmental, internal
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situational loneliness
happens when life events (context) creates feelings of isolation
Ie. natural disaster, conflict with closer person, accident or dealing with upsetting situation
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developmental loneliness
occurs when someone struggles to balance need for connection with desire for independence
May feel like life lacks meaning, which can lead to emptiness
Ie. person works hard to be independent but feels disconnected from others as result
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internal loneliness
comes from within, tied to how someone feels about themselves and is liked to
low self esteem (feels inadequate ior unworthy)
Negative locus of control; believing life is controlled by external factors, not personal choices; there's nothing i can do
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internal vs external locus
External locus: things happen to me, no control
Internal locus; i have control over life amd feelings
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results of loneliness
Serious public health concern
Cause physical and emotional pain
Lead to stress related illnesses
Interfere with daily functioning like work or relationships
Slow recovery from illnesses or injuries
Socialn isolatio rauses risk of death by 29%
Loneliness increses mortality by 26%
Living alone raises rish by 32%
Linked to coronary vascular disease and other heart issues
Linked to increased inflammation bc increased producton of cytokines
Loneliness linked to suicidal behaviours, depression,fatigue, chronis pain, psychotic disorders (delusioanl thinking and depressive psychosis)
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some researchers argue loneliness is a ...
a psychiatric disorder, similar to depression or anxiety
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smiling and affiliation; 2 types in babies
As babies, people smile to communicate and connect
Early smiles (6-9 weeks): babies smile at almost anything that makes them happy, toys, important people
Indiscriminate smiles: because they're not directed at specific individuals
Social smiles: as infants grow their smiles become more focused; by a few moths they begin to reserve smiles for familiar faces like parents or caretakers
Smiling is how babies express joy and build connections
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before 6 months babies are ____ with strangers and don't mind unfamiliar faces
fine
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when babies encounter a stranger, it can create uncertainty leading to ____ ; can be reduced in 2 ways
stranger anxiety(fear of unfamiliar people); Experience: babies who have been around more people feel less anxious about strangers, so increased socialization creates better ability to relate to others
Strangers identity: infants are less afraid of women and other kids than of adult men (caregiver and smaller in size)
Adults larger and more imposing
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how do babies navigate socialization
Detect emotions through tone of voice more tahini facial expressions, bc vision isn't fully developed
As vision improves, they become better at reading faces and emotions
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when does social referencing begin in infants
8-9 months
When babies intentionally look to caregiver ti decide how to react to something new or uncertain
Ie. stranger enters room, so baby watches moms reaction; if mom looks happy, baby feels safe; if mom looks scared/upset, baby will also become anxiou
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why do kids play
How kids learn to connect with others, explore imagination, develop social skills, make friends,
Diff types emerge as kids grow, reflecting their increasing ability to interact with others
Play helps kids learn to interact with others; dev problem solving and teamwork skills; explore creativity through imagination
Play is form of self expression whether alone or not ; dev theory of mind and differentiation
Sets stage for relationship building and learning to navigate socialization
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5 kinds of play in children
solitary play, parallel play, associative play, cooperative play, onlooker play,
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solitary play
up to age 1.5; kids play by themselves without involving others
Ie. toddler stacks blocks alone
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parallel play
up to age 1.5-2; kidsplay side by side, doing similar activities, but not directly interacting
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associative play
(at around age 2); kids start to play by sharing toys or materials, but they aren't playing the same game or activity
One kid build block tower, and the other hands them blocks
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cooperative play
age 3; kids start to fully engage in shared activities, or games that require teamwork and imagination
Ie. playing house
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onlooker play
lids watch other splay and wait for the fight moment to join in
Ie. kid observing group playing tag, jumping in when game restarts
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attachment and by who
emotional bond that provides sense of security
The way we form attachments in childhood influences relationships throughout life; as friends, romantic partners, and in spiritual beliefs
Originally by mary ainsworth,
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3 attachment styles
Secure attachment; child views caregiver as home base to explore world
Kid feels comfortable exploring but seeks comfort when caregiver leaves/returns
Avoidant attachment: child avoids closeness with caregiver and does not seek comfort after separation
Ambivalent attachment; child has mixed feelings towards caregiver, both seeking closeness and acting angrily
Clinging to the caregiver but also kicking, hitting them when upset
Disorganized-disoriented attachment; child behaves inconsistently, appearing confused or dazed; approaching caregiver but avoiding eye contact
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attachment affects how we grow, mainly in 3 ways
Parenting styles: a caregivers parenting style ultimately shapes a kids future emotional health
College transition: students with secure attachments adjust better to college life, they feel confident in leaving home
Romantic relationships: early attachment styles influence how adults navigate romantic relationships
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pain of ostracism
being ignored or rejected, leading to emotional discomfort
Kross et al 2011 found that social rejection activates brian regions involved in physical pain; secondary somatosensory cortex, dorsal posterior insula
Suggest that phys pain and social rejection share similar neural pathways
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APA says those who are socially rejected from one group often
Becoming more sensitive to connection opportunities
Adapting behaviour to be more likable or agreeable
Conform or comply with others requests to regain acceptance
React with anger or aggression which can backfire
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3types of attraction
status, health, logic,
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ATATUS ATTRACTION; 2 kinds
Internal: confidence, skills, values
External: job, possessions, and visual indicators
Confidence particularly emphasized as long term factor
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health attraction
Includes physical appearance, movement, scent and intelligence
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logic attraction
focuses on alignment in
Life goals(ie. Kids, marriage, location)
Compatibility in values and aspirations
Generally with greater alignment there is greater attraction
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how is the pyramid or 3 attraction diff in online dating
In online dating, pyramid flips; logic being initial focus, followed by emotion and then physical traits (status and health)
In person meetings are crucial to confirm physical attraction, which cant be fully validated online
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attraction factors
proximity, familiarity, physical; attractiveness, similarity, reciprocity, hard to get effect, intimacy, self disclosure and over disclosure
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attraction factor proximity; 2 ways
Ease of interaction: being close makes interaction more natural and frequent
Mere exposure effect: familiarity through repeated exposure increases liking
Occurs even if initial exposure is neutral or negative
being physically close increases likelihood of forming connections
Festinger, schacter, back 1950
Law of proximity; more likely to groupo things based on how close together thay are physically
Proximity fosters relationships when people can communicate in sam etime and space
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attraction factor familiarity
repeated exposure to a person tends to increase attraction; the exposure effect
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attraction factor; physical attractiveness; 2 biases
often a significant factor esp in initial attraction
Shapes perceptions of others
Attrcativeness extends beyond initial impressions, affecting how we view their intelligence, personality and moral character
Halo effect: we tend to attribute +ive traits to someone who si attractive, like happier, intellgentm, kind
Beauty matters bc people exhibit a beauty bias; tendency to perceive and treat physically attractive people more favourably
Evolutionary explanation: adaptive value in ancestral environments, where physical appearance could signal health, fertility, and genetic fitness
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attraction factor: similarity
shared values, interests, and goals strengtghen connections
Research suggest that similarity not difference drives attraction
People most likely to be attrarcted to those w similar characteristics (education, reli beliefs, appearance)
Not just superficial features, bit attitudes, interests and social behaviorus
Similarity worlds bc
When sonmeosn shares perspectievs and worldviews, its validating of our own
comlemetnarty traits, but overall attraction based on similarity over opposites is more powerful
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matching hypothesis in similarity attraction
people tend to date others who are similar to them in terms of physical atteactivemness
Someone who thinks theyr emoderately attractive, they seek out someone who is similarly attractive
Could be bc such relationships are less likely to involve dissatisfaction an dinsecurity
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attraction factor reciprocity
when one person offers something of value lie attention, compliments, the recipient feels inclined to return favour
Creates balance an
d fairness in relationship
Reciprocity hols true in +ive an d-ive exchanges
Aronson and worchel 1966; when people were told a stranger liked them, theory were more likely to express greater liking fot hat person in return
Reciprocity: when one person offers something of value lie attention, compliments, the recipient feels inclined to return favour
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reciprocal liking effect
where people tend to like others more when they believe feeling is mutual; Essential in trust and mutual respect, sense of fairness and mutual investment, avboiding relationship feeling one-sided
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hard to get effect attraction factor
people are sometimes more attracted to those who appear selectively available
Person deliberately acts in way that signals tehyre less available
Idea is that by appearing less available someone may seem more desirable
Eagerness or availability is found more attractive
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selectively hard to get strategy
makes person see to have higher value as they seem to hace choice of partners
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attraction factor: intimacy
emotional closeness is essentual for sustaining long term attrcation
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attraction factors: self- and over-disclosure
Self disclosure plays vig role in dforming close relationships, connection and trust
Ehren we get personal, we ex[ect reciprocity tat the other wil also disclose
Overdisclosure; revealing too much personal info too fats can reduce attraction creating discomfort
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social exchange theory of attraction
For understanding how an why people form and maintain relationships
Minimax strat: aiming toi max rewards and minimize costs
People want most benefits whil putting in least wirk
The more cost=the more difficult to maintain
Longevity and satisfaction of relationship depenbds on balance between costs and rewards
If more rewards than costs -=satisfying and enduring
If more, higher costs=less likely to be maintained
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4 main relationship costs
Conflict: arguments, msisunderstandings, disagreements that result oin stres sor discomfort
Compromise: need to giev up something of personal value to accommodate the opthers needs
Sacrifice: giving up personal desires or making sacrifices for good pof relationship
Tiem and energy: investing emotional or phsy reosurces ito maintaining relationship may be drianingf
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2 types of relationships
Communal: expectations of mutual responsiveness, both concerned about peach others needs and are wiling to provide support without keeping score
Exchange: based on the principle of reciprocity, each person expects to receive something in return for what they give an theresx focus on fairness and equality
Both types can become intimate or romantic relationships; these are characteeuzed by strong sense of sttarctio to anopthe , based on personality and phsy features
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what is love
Complex and multifaceted emotion that palsy big role in intimate relationships
Sternberts triangular theory of love
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stwrnbergs triangular theory of love
Intimacy: the emotional component of love; how cliose we feel to anpothe, how much we like them and how well we connect emotionally
Commitment: cognitive component ofd love; decision to maintain rwlationshp over long eterm; last component ot develop essential for love
passion : motivational component of love, phsy attraction, romance, sex desire
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gottmans 4 communication styles that predict end to relationships
criticism, contempt defensiveness, stonewalling
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gottmans bad comm: criticism
solve by using rogers’ I statements
Occurs when person attacts partners core character not addressing issue
Pervasive criticism makes victim feel assaulted, rejected and hurt
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gottmans bad comm: contempt
when one partner traits other with disrespect, ridicule, sarcasm, or mockery
Greates single predictor of divorce must be eliminated
Solve by bilding culture of appreciationannd respect by expressing gratitude affection and respect
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gottmans bad comm: defensiveness
when a person feels unjustly accused and responde by making excuses and portraying sefl as cvictom
While may fele lke protecting yourself, it escalates teh conflict nd orevents healthy resolution
Fix by taking repsonsibility fir paert tof conflict
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gottmans bad comm: stonewalling
when oen parnter withdraws from convo; shuts down; stops responding
Prevents resolution and causes further emotional distance
Ficx by self soothi ng, take a short break at least 20 mins
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why do people help
feels good; expectation of karma; hope someone else would help you; status or recognition; if group is doing well, you're doing well
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mcguires taxonomy of helping
small favours, substantial person helping, emergency helping, prosocial behaviour, altruistic behaviour, egotistical behaviour,
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altruistic behaviour
helping someone with no expectation of getting anything in return, not even recognition
Making life saving organ or blood donation and never ask to be identified
If we don't mind that the person knows, then its prosocial
Intention of the helping behaviour is key
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egotistical behaviour
only talk about yourself; ignores others needs, acts selfishly to satisfy own desires
Care mainly about what benefits them, often at expense of helping others
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evolutionary pepective on helping
psych that studies hoe behaviours may have dev overtime to help us survive and reproduce (darwinian perspective)
Helping others at a cost to yourself may harm your chance of survival and prevent you from passing on genes
Darwisn survival of the fittest; based on drive(get what you need to survive and reproduce) and defense (protect yourself in face of danger)
Helping others may have them help you
Darwin suggests animals that live in groups including humans benefit from staying together; allows us to better protect ourselves from dangers, others can come to ait
Over time, evolution may favour those who work better in social groups, bc this enhanced survival chances
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2 forms of altruism
kin selection or inclusive fitness; reciprocal altruism
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kin selection/inclusive fitness
helping those in your group
More likely to help those most closely related bc they share your genes; helping them indirectly helps you pass on your genes
Traits like empathy and attachment are important; genes and evolution that make you this way’ personality is actually dev and changeable
People who are agreeable but not very emotionally stable may show more kin altruism
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reciprocal altruism
Why we may help strangers/those unrelated
Bc they may help us in future to survive, if we need it
In long run, everyone benefits from cooperation
Helping someone in need increases chances of survival for both helper and the recipient when favour si returned
Traits like forgiveness and the ability to avoid holding grudges are key
People who are agreeable and emotionally stable are more likely to engage in this type of helping behaviour
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personal responsibility
when we feel personally responsible for helping someone, were more likely to help
Tied to concept of diffusion of responsibility, where presence of others can lessen our sense of personal obligation
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time pressure and helping influence
Were less likely to help someone if were in a rush, even if person clearly needs help; bc increased activation mentally bc of anxiety, narrower field of view so less likely to notice extraneous details
Batson and colleagues 1978 asked 40 people to move from one building ti another for a study
; those late less likely to help
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is there natural tendency in some peoples nature to help
Harshorne and may 1929, looked at how moral actions and helping behaviours were related; r=.23
Suggests being moral doesnt always make someone more likely to help; issues like busy, anxiety, bystander effect
altruism not really characteristic; still eval costs of helping even if more altruistic
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baton 1987 proposed helping is motivated by 2 goals
Egotistical motivation: helping tehrs to feel good about self
Altruistic motivation: helping purely ti improve someone elses wellbeing
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prosocial personality
suggests personality traist linked to helping, dep on sictgh; some more likely to help in emergencies, etc
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factors in whether or not we help
time, emotion; particularly embarrassment pushes is not to help while guilt guilt pushes is to help; culture, situation, personality
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religiosity and proscoiality
Religiosity; how connected someone is to reli beliefs and practices, can influence how they help; People with higher spirituality; feelling connectied to something bigger than themselves report beingv more prosocial
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3 kinds of religious orientations
Intrinsic orientationL viewing reli as core part of IDF, more likely to prefer planned, non spontaneous helpmng like volunteering
Extrinsic orientation: peopel use reli for perosnal gains like meeting people
Quest orientation: ona search for meaning, more likely to engage in spontaneous helping like assisting someone in the moment
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altruistic hypocrisy
not everyone who holds +ive views about being prosocial will actually help others; intrinsic and orthodox beliefs linked to favurable ideas about helopng, but attitudes dont always translate into act6ion
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does religion make kids more altruistic
decety et al 2015 tested 1100 kids age 5-6 from 6 countries; found kids from non-religious households to be more altruistic than religious houses
Shariff reanalyzed the sata and found that cultural diffs accounded for variation in altruism, not religion alone; concluded religion can ecnourage generosity, but its not the only or most important factor
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mood and helping
A good mod can make us mor epositive, which can motivate us to extend kindness (cookies at real estate showings)
Helping for approval; sometimes can make su feel good bc gets us recognition and praise
Deutsch and lamberti 1986 found taht people who have a strong need for approval are more likely to help if theyve been positively reinforced for doing so in the past;
People in a bad mood can help too;
Negative state relief model; helping others can make us feel better by improving our own mood; eg being a therapis
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men and helping
men are more likely to help inways tat are heroic or chivalrous; think of saving someone from fire or stepping in in dangerous situation
These actiona are often bold and agentic; focused on individual action and impact
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women and helping
Women are morelikely to ehlp in ways that are nurturing and relational; providing emotional support or everyday needs
Behaviors tend to focus on building and maintaining relationships
Can be explained in evol theory and social learning theory (gender roles and cultural norms); also biol testosterone levels
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gender differences in helping shaped by 3 things
Division of labour in trad gender roles
Hormones and traits; biol and individual diffs
Social expectations: society validated men for being masculine and women for beig feminine
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sympathy vs empathy
sympathy : feeling compassion, sorrow, for someowns hardship
Emptahy; not actually feeling what somepoen else is, but imaging how youd experience it; putting yourself insoeone elses shoes, experiencing vicariously
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empathy altruism hypothesis
according to batson 1991 empathy can lead to purely altruistic behyaviour
If we feel empathy for someone, we help the out of genuine concern or out of alleviating our dicsomfort
If we dont have empathy, w weigh cost-benefit
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helping and social exchange theory
explains helping behaviorus through cost-benefit analysis
Seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in decisions to help[
According to this, helping is never truly altruistic, its motivated by self interest
Perceived self interest; helping may also come with expectations of repayment; motivation doesn't matter to recipient
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bystander effect
the more people around, the less likely any one person is to help in a n emergency
Happens bc we feel less personal responsibility when others are present; we assume someone else will step in
Kitty genovese case; in 1964 a woman was stabbed and 38 people heard her crying out but did nothing; so he returned and murdered her when no one helped
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how to avoid bystander effect and help; 5 steps
noticing the event
interpreting event as emergency
assuming responsibility
weighing cost-benefit
deciding hopw to help, action
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audience inhibition in helping
may worry about looking foolish or of failing
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reluctant altruism in helping
May feel pressure to help bc peer influence
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pluralistic ignorance
: bystanders assume nothing is wrong in an emergency bc no one else looks concerned
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diffusion of responsibility
each bystanders sense of responsibility decareases as number of them increases
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culture and asocial norms around helping
Social norms guide behaviour
Influenced by culture and way we view relationships
Collectivistic (east) sulutres hace stronger focus on helping others, esp this in the ingroup
Individualistic (west) might help others less, and may expect smt in return
Both groups still will help the in group more than the out group
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reciprocity norm(altruism)
idea that if we help somon, theyre more likely to help us back when we need it
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social responsibility norm
we should help others without expecting anything in return; this coils be seen when parents care for kids; about doing whats right regardless of ny future benefit
