chapter 1 Flashcards
social psych is
study of behaviour and mental processes that relate to how we engage w others; way we socialize way we mutually seek validation; e. if emotions are threat dev. which emotion is elicited
what is good and bad
based on morals, advantageous; labels maintaining emotions
narcissism
overinflated sense of self; people we call narcissistic are just more selfish than others
altruism
doesn’t exist; secondary ann anytime we do something for others
personality
traits are stable and unique to individuals; therapy works bc it changes how you are
who someone is versus how someone is. what’s the who and how
who: identity
how: personality
nature vs nurture
its largely nurture (parental social cond); learn attachment, mirrr others
trauma is
things that shape psyche; leading us to have memories and suppression and avoid social processing
emotion is __always a disorder
react after trauma; diagnoses can be unhelpful, emotion ok
fundamental attribution error
wrongly attribute someone else’s actions to personality, and ours to external circumstance; over attribute others actions to their character
behaviour is
thoughts actions behaviours
when we say you hurt me emotionally we mean
im uncomfortable; this 9is a reaction of discomfort not the same as physical pain
psych is study of
individuals thoughts actions behaviours
if we say i should instead of i ought to
were less likely to follow through; words chang our psych
sociology is
study of groups or society; eg . is treshold for too fat static or fluid pertaining to socioeconomic outcomes
personality psych is
study of diff’s in thoughts feelings behaviour of individual
research in social psych involves
observation, measure and record behaviour, manipulate and see which cond leqds to behaviour, infer correlation or causation
basic/pure social psych research is
knowledge for sake of knowledge;
why do we treat out groups diff; bystander effect; attraction to certain people
applied psych research
find solutions to real world problems; encourage people to interact favorably
process of thoughts behaviour sand feelings
thoughts-> feelings-> behaviour; all centred around core beliefs; eg. disgust response-> avoidance-> overprotecting emotions
interoceptive meditation
decrease his emotional repsonse/pain by focusing and saying aloud
evolutionary psych
are there evol reasons for psych mostly made ups
3 diffs ins sociology, social psych, personality psych
sociology: look at large groups diffs b/n groups
social psych: looks at how people socialize w others and interact
personality psych: looks at individual
psych stems from what field of study and 4 categories
philosophy, study of nature of knowledge
metaphysics
epistemology
ethics
logic
metaphysics is branch of philosophy…
understanding ppl, how mind works and behaviour
is fate determined in childhood
epistemology is branch of philosophy…
how do we think/learn
norman triplett
19th cent; others pescence affects perform.; social facilitation
maximilian nigelmann
1880’s; less productive large r a group is; social loafing
floyd allport
reported response to stimuli; scientific procedure and methods
kurt lewin
group dynamics
francis summer
est black psychology
solomon asch
conformity; primacy effect; halo effect
gordon all port
prejudice; reliability; developed OCEAN
Mamie and kenneth clark
rsrch on segregation
Leon festinger
cognitive dissonance; comparison theory
Irving janis
attitude change; groupthink
stanley schacter
2 factor theory of emotion
stanley milgram
would someone chock to death another if told to by authority; ? abt nazi germany
social neuroscience
neuro behind cogn processing, schemas and interpretations
how brian affects social behaviour
studies influence of neurological, hormonal, cellular influence on social
cross cultural research
looks at how cultural content influences social behaviour
new social loafing w internet is
cyber loafing
sutin and terricciato 2016; do ocean traits contribute to either a person has low or high BMI
personality psych; neuroticism and consienstiousnes most trolly related to BMI; high activity scores=low BMI;
vartanian and trewarth 2016; disgust predicts prejudice and discrimination towards obesity
social psych; if emotions threat dev, what emotionn elicited in repsonse to obesity; primary response was disgust, more -iev attitudes
Marlani and Mckee 2017; is threshold for being too fat static or fluid pertaining to diff socioenconc outcomes
sociology; assoc b/n mai and social outcome snot constant
scientific method
systematic meth for gathering info abt world
6 steps to research
1) rsrch q or ID prob to solve, fil gap in knowledge
2) explain phenomena we want to study; why events occur
3) test hypothesis; create design to test using appropriate meth
4) interpret results; examine data for patterns
5) draw conc’s carefully; avoid biases and state findings
6) communicate findings for rev&rep
theory vs hypo
theory: systematic explanation
hypothesis: testable prediction
science has 3 cardinal features
observation: we see world firsthand
experimentation: to make causal statements, we manipulate 1 variable; primary method
measurement: questionnaires, pattern recognition
we can determine causality with ______ &____ statistics
inferential and descriptive
observational rsrch
naturalistic: observe in nat enviro; counts,measures and rates behaviour systematically; good bc witness behaviour as it nat occurs but bad bc takes time, researcher could be detected
lab: observing ppl or animal in lab; good bc sophisticated measures&film; bad bc subjects aware of lab so artificially
ex of observational
griffiths 1991; adolescent gambling; revealed reg players had confirmed to certain rules
case studies
detailed description of one person/small group; good bc rich description; bad bc cant gen to pop
ex of case study
breuer and freud 1893 started talk therapy through case study on hysteria in anna o
survey/self report
questionnaire assessing psych contstruct ; good bc large aloud of data; bad bc tedious and social desirability could ebissue
correlational research
examines relation b/n 2 variable sor gorups; -ve correlation is one goes up the othe down; +ive is both up or both down; you can correlate anything, does not = causation (unless regression)
experiments
controlled test of hypo; one V is amipulated to see effect on other V; IV is indeed variable that’s manipulated; DV is dev. variable measured; control group cond that doesn’t get treat.; allows for comparison and cauasality
ex of correlational
Roccas, Schawrts and Knafo 2002, realtionship of OCEAN
ex of experiment
allison and messick 1990, people could take points from pool of resources to get cash, 3 IVs: pay-off size, pool # and fate control
multi meth
no singe meth is perfect; several approaches at varying stages
archival
alazy data already collected for another purpose; can sue for longitudinal; ACT scores
meta analysis
stat procedure where info from more than 1 study is combined
ex meta analysis
sheriff et al 2015 article on religious pricing and pro sociality; Moncreiff et all 2022 on serotonin theory of depression
reliability 3 kinds
consistency of a measure; test retest reliability=isnt reliable across time; internal reliability=consitency of people responses; interrater reliability= cocistency of observers and judgements
validity 5 kinds
valid if score rep what they meant to measure
face: if it seem to measure construct
content: to what degree mean covers construct
criterion: we expect scores to be related on a multiple constructs
external: do results gen to pop
internal: can we say results due only to manipulation not confounds
research ethin=cs and ex
importnat to understand meths and ethical implications; milligram study on obedience to commit violence; stanford zinbardo study on pretend prison inmates
ethical guidelines
must get informed consent (signed in writing, get then to exompalin exp to you)
given info abt risks
tell abt confidentiality/anaonymity
ppl can leave at anytime
debrief after study offered assistance and resources, inform of ny deception
rsrch must be approved by ethics board 676
at ages 18-22
disruptions in personality dev; moving, losing friends
self concept is relatively stabbed but ___ can bring out diff version of us
environments
marks and kundu 1986 study on dual nature of self concept
participants asked opinion of 3 posters at a time, on 15/18 trials confess disagree and agreed w eachoither
we don’t want to feel _____, we want to feel lie were in the in-group
special or diff; we take out best fitting costumes to fit in a ditch; whoeerv if were made to fit in, we wa t to stand out
schema
mental shortcut strong info in mind about objects, places for a later time
self schema
cogn generalizations about self from past that guide social exp.s; help shape perception of ambiguity people
schematic vs aschematic
schematic: expertise in area, quick to use shortcuts, shame in specific domain
aschematic: unable to recognize ability in given domain and don’t assign importance to i t
dependent schematic vs independent schematic
dep: more likely to rate ambiguity as dependent
independent: mor eliely to rate ambiguity as independent
prieto, cole, tageson 1992 kids self schemas
kids w -ive self schemas couldn’t remember +ive words,a nd visce versa
cole et al 2014 kids bullying
when kids learned of bullying if peers, developed more -ively
partisan schema
political knowledge/interest; remember things in way that aligns w what they all believe; schematic sdont care about politics, have no presumptions
consistency bias
remember info that aligns w our beliefs
types of ex.s of self-schemas
rate-thnicity, nobody weight, gender and sex orient, illness, exercise
introspection
trying ton understand elf s by looking intrinsically; surface details eek food preference font add to ID; important parts embedded in attitudes, beliefs etc
self-perception
cleaner about self by observing behaviours, insight into secondary aspects of who yo are
possible selves
how we imagine self in future, +ive(motivation) versions we aspire to and -ive versions (anxiety/guilt) that we fear
self regulation
clear image of who we want be helps us focus on thoughts and actions that help us get to that future
self-reference effect
tendency for poplin to process and remember info when related to themselves
depth of processing framework
way we remember things dep on how deeply we think about set when we first experience it
semantic encoding
process info base don meaning
self-referent encoding
thinking abt how info related to oneself; if someone cant do it may have unstable self-concept (major psychotherapy target)
self-discrepancy theory
explains diffs b/n various versions of self ; explain -ive emotions when self-concept =ideal self; 2 major cogn dimensions
2 cognitive dimensions of self-discrepancy theory
domains of self:
1) actual self: who u think u are rn
2) idealself: who u/other wants u 2 b
3) ought self: who u/other thinks you should be, duties/obligwations
standpoints on self:
own standpoint
other standpoints (fam)
the 2 cognitive dimensions of self discrepancy combined to create 6 types of self-state rep. s
actual/own = view of who u r rn
actual/other=how S.O. sees you
ideal/own: who u hope to be
ideal/other=who SO wishes u to be
ought/own=who u wish to be, duties
ought/other=who SO think u shoudlbe based on duties
discrepancies b.n the 6 types of self-state rep. s
act/own vs ideal/own:current self doesn’t =wishes
act/own vs ideal/other: current self doesn’t=wishes of SO
act/own vs ought/other: failing to meet expect/s of SO
act/own vs ought/own: fail to meet own sense e of duty
looking glass self
how self concept is shaped by social interacts:
- imagining how we appear to others
- how others judge us: imagining what other shrink of us
- forming feelings & reactiond: dev feelings and decide response based on what we think others think
reflected appraisals
how we see ourself based on how those important to us perceive us
verkutyon 1988 studie self esteem
of ethnic minority sin Netherlands
social comparison theory
unsure abt ourself so we look to others for standing;
- self improve and motivation: ranking urself compared to others as motive for imrpove
- enhancing self image; comp to feel better about self
impact of social media on comparisons
social media makes us think others are better; -ive self image
upward social comparison
comp to someone more skilled or better; could be shameful or motivating
schaters 2 theory of emotion 1964
1) physiological arousal: physical reactions in boyd, heart rate
2) cogn appraisal: mental processes if interpreting sitch-> emotions
sense of self is shaped by culture….
beliefs, customs, norms dictate acceptable behaviour, if they differ -> guilt, shame; diff ideas of self in diff cultures
idnependent self (individualistic =cult09
west cultures’ self= independent
others opinions matter fir self evals nd reflect appraisals
interdependent self (collectivist cult)
east cultures self = interred or collective; focus on social roles, duties, relationships
maslow’s hierarchy
physical-> security-> love and belonging-> self esteem-> self actual
self esteem as need; stability over time?
how we see ourself; changes in life;
-childhood: SF stability low
- young adult: SF stability increase
- midlife-old age: SF stability decreases
findings true across gender , race, etc
self awareness
ability to direct vibes attention inward sn reflecting on self; increase aware when we reflect in sitch; in unchecked can be -ive, binge eating, deporess
public self consiousmness
focusing self as social object, concern w self image
private self consciousness
internal thoughts, feelings, motives,
self enhancement
psych process to maintain +ive image
mechanisms of self enhance
-self advance: augment +ivity in self
-self protect: reduce _ivity in self
-public: engage on good self present
-private: maintaining +ive self views internally
-domain specific: often occurs in personal domains
-candid: seize immediate chance to improve
tactical: delay self enhance for strategic purpose s
3 kinds of +ive illusions
self aggrandizement; indflating self perception
exaggerated perception of ctrl: think one or more ctrl over events
unrelated optimism: overly opt abt future
self handicapping 2 kinds
start to protect self esteem by making exciuses for potential failure s
-behaviourla: acquire obstav=cles, drug or alc
claimed: only reports obstacles to success; test anxiety
better than avg effect
view self as better than avg, lead to over dconfidence and fail
bask in reflected glory
assocs self w success of othwr s
self present
efforts to control other sperceptiosn
self promotion
emphasize own +ive attributes
ingratiation
flattering others to make them like us
false modesty
downplay capabilities to seem modest and get praise
self verification
interpret sitch to conform to beliefs
self monitor
adjust behaviour ti social acceptability
self serving bias
make ourself look or feel good
false consensus effect
how people share our opinions as fact
dispositional optimism
expect freq +ive outcomes. over -ive ones
defensive pessimism
setting low expectations and prep for -ive outcomes
kinesiology
awareness of our bodies
5 senses
vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell
sensation is
detection
transduction
Once receptor cells detect energy, info is converted to electrochem. signals
- Signals then sent to brain via nerves, sensory neurons (neural impulse)
-Brain receives raw data and makes sense by adding meaning (perception)
-After brain gets signal it sends back to body instructing reaction
optical illusion’s from
misperception
nervous system has 2 parts
Central NS: brain and spinal cord
Peripheral NS: connects CNS to rest of body
peripheral NS has 2 parts
Somatic NS:manages voluntary movement
Autonomic NS: manages involuntary functions
autonomic NS has 2 parts
Sympathetic NS: activates fight or flight response; regulates nervous system
Parasympathetic NS: calm body after emergency; regulates internal organs
NS responsible for
perception and cognition, collection of social info, types of info we collect
Social psych abt how we collect and assess info about people
Collecting info: using senses to gather data abt people like how they look/speak.act
Assess info: after collection, brain processes it; add meaning to raw data you gathered
social cogn is
applying concepts of sensation and perception ro better understand people
what kinds of info do we notice about others
physical cues; salience(stand out); facial expressions; personality traits/behaviour; eye contact; morals; nonverbal communication; microexpressions;
eye contact study kellerman, lewis and laird 1989
How eye contact could affect emotional connection and attraction
People were paired up
Told to make eye contact for 2 mins or do other things
Eye contact cond reported closer feelings and emotional connection
3 C’s of nonverbal communication/ body language
context : enviro amd history of the people, and role of each person
Clusters: no single gesture def state of mind or emotion
Congruence: when words match our body language is key; when we lie, some forget facial expressions ie emotion and affect don’t align
Negativity effect vs positivity bias
-ive traits stand out more than +ive ones; stand sout and forms impressions
+itivity bias: assume good qualities in others like kind or smart, based on limited +ive info
halo effect
we assume someone has other +ive qualities based on one +ive trait
If we think someones nice we may think they’re kind or attractive
emotional states’ impact
Our mood can affect how we see others; paranoia out of anger or anxiety
Deception and microexpressions
Sometimes use deception in interactions to hide feelings or intentions to avoid hurting someone; fake smile (non-duchenne smile)
nonverbal leakage
unknowingly revealing what were trying to hide
When we interact we focus more on what we say not what our body or face might show
categories and schemas
when we meet someone, we put them in category to help us make sense of who they are
each category has schema; set of beliefs or expectations about a group
types of schemas
role, person, event, stereotypes, prototypes
role schema
expectations of how people in certain roles should act; ie professor, HR employee
person schema
beliefs abt specific types of people; ie. firefighters are brave, geeks are tech savvy
event schema
expectations of what should happen in certain situations; ie. party=food and music
steroty[pe chema
beliefs of typical traits of a group or category; ie artist is creative
prototype schema
predictions of specific scenarios and people; eg your idea of a typical boss
belief perseverance
hold onto beliefs formed from initial perceptions even when faced with contradictory impressions
primacy effect
1st impression sticks despite learning contradictory info
confirmation hypo
focus only on info that supports existing beliefs
Schemas help us process info fast but may be incorrect or lead to oversimplifying situations
misinformation effect
misleading info about a recently witnessed event incorporated into memory of event
self fulfilling prophecy
Schemas can shape behaviour in a way that makes them come true
schemas vs heuristics
Schema: mental folders to quickly sort and understand large amounts of info
Heuristic: mental shortcuts for prob solving or understanding unclear info
Representative heuristic:
we judge the likeliness of something based on how well it fits a prototype
coinjunction error
assume combos are more likely than individ elements; Happens when we think 2 things are happening together is more likely than just one of them happening alone; often wrong bc combining them makes them less likely
Anchoring and adjustment. Heuristic and its issue
start with reference point and ten adjust to form a judgement; eg. runner is faster than you so they’re very fast
Problem: we stop adjusting once the result feels good enough even if inaccurate v
Base-rate fallacy:
focus on unusual features of person or sitch then ignore the bigger more common patterns eg one sport fan is rowdy so all are
biased info
judgements formed about someone is influenced by what other stell us; eg. friend says worker unfriendly so we assume same
Makes it difficult for you to form indep opinion bc judgment informed by biased pov
limited info
make judgements based on little info; small amount of info you have may not be enough
faulty expectations
we let past experiences shape how we see new situations even when irrelevant; ie past employee was incompetent
could make u ignore signs that new person is actually good
priming
happens when youtube been exposed to smt recently that impacts how we process new info; eg list personality traits
framing
refers to the way info is displayed affecting decisions
Uqam Is bad school= you may think -ively of it
Tversky and kahneman 1981: sure gain or risk/gamble framing study
Would you buy a ticket if you lost the 10%v boll you were gonna use
Effective forecasting:
how well feel abt future events, good or bad; emotions strongly influence decisions and we imagine how we will react
overestimating emotional reaction
people try to predict how they’ll feel about future events, often expect emotions to be stronger than they are
emotional intelligence score
emotional intelligence is ability to understand and manage emotions both our own and others
Being aware of emotions, controlling responses,m handling situations well
Higher level is better at effective forecasting
attribution theory
Understanding why people behave the way they do
2 obs in attributen rheory
Dispositional attribution : we believe behaviour is caused by something inside person
Situational attribution: behaviour is caused by something external like the situation or enviro
correspondent inference theory
Help figure out if some actions reflect their personality (dispositional) ir is influenced by situation (situational)
what factors do we look at in correspondent inference theory
Free choice
Number of outcomes: if you see boss isn’t friendly, looking at all causes/outcomes
Social desirability; maybe actions for social validation
Social roles: roles can be def by behavior
covariation theory and 3 kinds of info analysis
helps figure out cause of someone’s behaviour by looking at 3 types of info
Distinctiveness
Consensus
Consistency
discounting principle
if there’s multiple reasons for behaviour, were less likely to assign to one cause; ie if employee nice ot boss+ disposition; is employees nice to boss for promotion=situation
belief in just world
good things happen to good people, karma; victim blame
self serving bias
we take credit for our success but blame failures elsewhere
actor observer bias
eople explain their own behaviour by blaming external factors but explain others behaviours by blaming their traits
counterfactual thinking
we imagine what might have been in certain situations
Can be +ive or -ive dep on whether we compare current life to better one or to worse one
Uses upwards or downward comparisons
wishful seeing
how ppl tend to see things based on the way they want to, based on desires and motivations
attitude
e
Attitude: assessment of ourselves, others, ideas and objects in world
Many diff attitudes for diff things; types of attitudes influenced by own self-concept and perception of others
availability heuristic
we estimate how likely something is based on how quickly we can think of examples
Balcetis and Dunning 2010
wishful seeing study
One group made thirsty by giving salty pretzels
Oen group given as much water from 4 8oz glasses of water water
Thirsty rated water more appealing, but also said it was closer to them as compared to quenched cond
Tripartite model ABC’s
Affect
behaviour
Cognition
Where do these attitudes come from (affect and behaviour)
Affectively based attitude is based on primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object
Behaviourally based attitude is based [rimrily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
Attitudes ____ need to contain three components ; generally they contain at least ___
don’t; 2
Negative attitudes towards particular groupsb is likely to have a____ basis
cognitive
Issues that are tied to our symbolic beliefs (value system) will give rise to_____ based attitudes
affectively
Kaddock, Zanna, and Esses 1993; attitudes towards homosexuality
k, Zanna, and Esses 1993; attitudes towards homosexuality
Affective: feelings exp when thinking about homosexuality
Cognitive: values promotes/hindered by homo
Cognitive: characteristics homosexuals posess
behavioural : frequency/nature of contact w homo
attitiudes serve 4 functions
knowledge, ego-defensive, utilitarian, value-expressive
attitude purposes: knowledge
Attitudes help make sense of world w/out needing to eval everything all the time
Makes life more efficient but can lead to probs like generalizing or making assumptions/stereotypes
attitude purposes: utilitarian
Attitudes help us avoid punishment or gain rewards
Might think having many sex partners is wroing, but this belief helps avoid societal punish oif being labeled negatively
Can lead to masking/avoidance behaviours
attitude purposes: ego defensive
Attitudes protect self esteem or help us feel better abt ourselves
Eg. Might think cheerleaders are superficial bc u wanna be one
attitude purposes: value-expressive
Some attitude allow us to express who we are and what we care about
Someone who share s a lot of poli content on social media might be expressing ID as poli engaged person
how do attitudes form
People form them on own unique exp; why attitudes can be so fiff b/n in divides
Each person has diff life experiences that shape their attitudes, opinion and ideas abt the world
attitudes ____ be changed , influences modified, predict behaviour
can
Attitude strength; 4 major determinants
Ambivalence
Accessibility
Subjective exp
Autobiographical recall
explicit vs implicit attitudes
Explicit: can consciously endorse and easily report
Implicit: involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
Direct vs indirect experience
Attitudes from direct exp more powerful inpredicting behaviour
Direct esp create stronger attitudes bc theyre more closely ties to us perosnlly
bc of self reference effect
attitudes affect social thought bc
play big role in shaping how we act and think social; we like predictable things; we want to believe that if we know someone attitudes it’ll help us understand them
Attitudes like filters that colour how we see and process info (schemas and heuristics)
attitude strength: importance
att becomes stronger when its important to us, the more personally significant/powerful it becomes; importance make sit weaker or stronger
sitch constraints
some=times situation makes it so hard to act according to your true attitude
self fulfillingprophecy
when you make a judgment about someone, and that judgment changes how you behave towards them
Your behaviour then influences the other person to act in a way that confirms the PG judgment
Belief shapes behaviour, making prophecy come true
time pressure on behaviour and attitude
when in a hurry attitude is more likely to predict behaviour; bc under time pressure, we don’t have time to think hings through, so we rely on our attiutiudes to help make quick decisions; bc dont have tim to process every detail, more likely to behave in line w your attitude when you’re rushed; att strength can be better behavioural predictor
social norms
unwritten rules about how you’re supposed to act in certain situations
Many situations like work, where you can’t dress how you normally want bc sitch req formality; behavior does not reflect true attitude
attitude strength: knowledge
more you know about an issue, stronger att becomes; knowledge adds depth to your understanding of the att object
attitude strength: intensity
strong att tends to provoke strong emotional response; strong att aren’t only better at predict behaviour, but also less likely to change over time
attitude strength: accessibility
strong att are also easier to recall; if an issue wa important it comes to mind quick and easy; can measure this by seeing how fast someone can think about att when asked; quick and detailed answers show strength of att
attitude specificity
if we want to predict someone’s behavior, it’s better to ask about specific attitude rather than general one
Ask about specific attitudes (ie feelings about church on sundays, not about religion in gen)
theory of reasoned action
behavioural prediction model by Fishbein and ajzen 1975; predict behaviour based on
1) Their att about the behaviour
2) Subjective norms; whether important ppl in their life would do or approve of behaviour
theory of planned behaviour fishbein and ajzen
1) Their att about the behaviour
2) Subjective norms; whether important ppl in their life would do or approve of behaviour
3) perceived behavioural control (how much ctrl someone fells over sitch)
3 factors create behavioural intention-> behaviour
attitudes important for 2 kinds of behaviours
spontaneous: Automatic processing; attitude=highly accessible
deliberate: Controlled processing; attitude=not highly accessible; based on behavioural intentions
Yale attitude change approach; effective comm. dep on…
study of conditions under which most people are most likely to change att in response to persuasive messages; Source of communication
Nature of communication
Nature of the audience
persuasive communication
communication advocating particular side of an issue; eg. speech or TV ad
heuristic-systematic persuasion model: 2 methods
Suggests there’s 2 ways that persuasive comms can cause attitude change
Systematic processing: people process merits of arguments
Heuristic processing: people use mental shortcuts (heuristics)
Elaboration likelihood model: 2 routes
2 ways that persuasive comms can cause attitude change
Central route: occurs when ppl are motivated and have ability to pay attention to arguments in the communication
Peripheral route: occurs when people don’t pay attention to arguments but are swayed by surface characteristics
ad effectiveness dep on basis o fan attitudes
For cognitively based-att’s using rational argos and personal relevance is best
For affectively based-att’s using emotion is best
factors affectingselectioon or central vs peripheral route
-Motivation: personal relevance of topic; need for cognition; increased focus on facts, decreased focus on speaker
-Ability: complexity of the argument; easy=central; difficult-=peripheral
-Mood and route selection:
Good mood=peripheral route, maintains mood
Bad mood=central route, analyze arg
-permanency of change
Central route=more permanent/resistant
Peripheral route=more easily swayed
attitude inoculation
process of making ppl immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of arguments against theory position (mcguire 1964)
reactance theory
Approach can be too strong or it’ll boomerang; prohibited activity will become attractive
self-perception theory
if uncertain about how we feel towards smt or someone, own behaviour can help us figure out what our att really is’ happens automatically and unconsciously
Strack et al 1988 forced smile
participants divided into 2 groups; one w pen in teeth making them smile, and oen w pen in lips which made it hard to smile
Those w pencil in teeth c=found cartoon funnier than those with pen in lips(inhibited smile)
cogn dissonance
discomfort caused by when one’s behaviour is inconsistent with one’s att’s or one that holds 2 conflicting attitudes; often when we do smt that makes us feel stupid or immoral
try too get rid od cogn dissonance in 3 ways
choose easiest;
-Change our behaviour or att
- change cognition; Seek supporting info instead of changing your behaviour, add new cognitions
Trivialization: downplaying importance of att
post-decision dissonance
inevitably aroused after a perosn makes a decision
Reduced by enhancing the attrcativeness of the chosen alt and devaluating the rejected alternatives
when we exp. dissonance, we look to internal and external justification
External just: person resson/esxplanation for dissanat behaviour that resides outside individual (eg. i did it for a big reward)
If sufficient, dissonance will be low so no change req
Internal just: reduction of dissonance by changing smt about oneself
Dissonance will be high; look inward t justify behaviour; change in att or behaviour
power of mild punishment
insufficient punish=dissonance aroused when individual lacks sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired thing; usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden thing
counter attitudinal advocacy
process occurs when person states an opinion or att that runs counter to ones private belief/att
When you can’t find ext justification, you’ll attempt to find or create internal justification
harsh punishment
sufficient act justification; low dissonance; req constant vigilance
According to dissonance theory when we hurt someone, we come to ____ that person as a way to justify our cruelty
hate
persuasion schema
Constantly persuading each other
Persuasion Plays big role in society
Persuade others (work, relationships, etc)
Others persuade us
Rule et. al (1985); 1st study on persuasion schema
listed 12 reasons they were persuaded
Obtain info
Obtain object
Obtain permission
Getting someone to do favour
Changing another’s opinion
Getting someone to do a behaviour
Buying or selling
Changing an existing relationship
Changing someone’s personal habit
Helping persuader
Helping 3rd party
Act against self interest
Rule et. al (1985); 2nd study on persuasion schema
15 approaches to reach persuasion goals
Ask (without reason)
Personal expertise (follow expert)
Personal benefit (persuaders need)
Butter up (make other person feel good)
Invoke role relationship (not a true friend)
Bargain favour
norm (everyones doing it)
Moral principle (its right thing to do)
Altruism (it’s not for me)
Bargain object (bribe)
Emotional appeal (induce guilt)
Personal criticism (you’re just lazy)
Deceive (lie; justify actions)
Threaten
Physical force
Rule et. al (1985); 3rd study on persuasion schema
std order we try to persuade people in
Ask
Personal expertise
Personal benefit
Butter op
Role
Bargain favour
Norm
Morals
Altruism
Bargain abject
Emotional appeal
Personal criticism
Deceive
Threaten
Force
Understating persuasion requires understanding___
info processing
Chaiken et al (1989) suggests we use 2 diff strategies to manage all persuasive info
if important, we devote all our mental resources to process the info and for everything else we rely on mental heuristics
what is beautiful is good heuristic
e. if we see someone so attractive, we assume they are also smart or kind
Leads us to make poor decisions (ie. stalin, ted bundy,)
Petty and cacioppo (1986) and chaiken (1989) came up with dual processing model
Central route (systematic processing): deep, thoughtful path where we carefully think through message; used whentopic is personal relevant
Peripheral route (heuristic processing): more automatic, surface-level oath where we rely on mental shortcuts to make quick choice; when we don’t have time to think deeply about everything we come across
when to persuade using peripheral or central route
central: for long term impact, repaint on motivation
peripheral: we want audience to make a quick decision; uses sitch cues
Comunicatory persuasiveness dep on 2 factors :
Communicator credibility: how believable we think the person is
Communicator attractiveness: includes both phys appear and likability
What is beautiful is good heuristic
People assoc beaty w talent kindness, honesty and intelligence
communicator credibility based on
Perceived expertise: someone we perceive to be knowledgeable on topic and has ability to share accurate info
If we don’t care or dont have time , expertise is peripheral cue
Perceived trustworthiness: when we think person has nothing to gain for persuasion, that they are sincere; trust means more likely to believe personal; if untrustworthy, we analyze message more
solid argument vs emotional appeal
argument; will convince cognitively; emotional will appeal to an affectively based attitude
2 most common emotional appeals
1)Good feelings: more likely to follow peripheral route ;We make audience feel good, assoc +ive feelings w message presented
2) ppeal to fear: critical, likely to follow central route
Fear can be powerful to persuade people, but has to be used carefully
If fear too intense or if people enjoy behaviour they’re warned about, then fear won’t work; MUST BE PAIRED W SOLUTIONs, humour
Foot in the door persuasion
make small request, and once they agree make larger request
Goal is to get person to agree to larger request by starting small; communicatory takes advantage of need to be consistent with ouyt actions
lowballing
communicator offers attractive deal, after person agrees they come with reasons why it’s a good idea; then original deal is removed but you stick to commitment
Freedman and fraser (1966): lowballing study
people agreed to sign driver safety petition
And then 76% agreed to billboard in yard 2 weeks later
door in the face persuasion
making large request thats likely to be refused, then follow with smaller, more reasonable request
Smaller request is what they want person to actually agree to
reciprocity persiuasion
when someone does smt for us we feel need to return favour
Communicator seems like they’re compromising s you compromise too
perceptual contrast persuasion
way out perceptions are influenced by order of presentation of things
one sided vs 2 sided appeals
One side appeal: best used when audience agrees w position
Risks: if processing centrally they might be critical and seek opp; if finding courage, might undermine your position
2 sided appeals:best used when audience disagrees or has mixed feelings
By acknowledging opp, you present arg after to address counter args first
seekers cult, 1950s, less than 30 people; studied by festinger
-relied on social proof, a heuristic that suggests that if others are doing something it must be correct
-when world didn’t end, members silent and upset then when they heard their faith had saved world, members strengthened support; following failure, cult became more open
jonestown; indiana pastor
-Used lowballing and foot in the door; small requests (YARD WORK) then bigger (moving countries)
-Emotional appeals: targeted vulnerable people who lacked support/belonging
-attractiveness.credibility ; presented as credible leader of a utopia; strong political messages
