Population Flashcards
antinatalist population policies
encourage couples to limit the number of chidren they have
most often, these policies discourage growth through the provision of contraception or abortion or through establishment of specific disincentives, such as steep penalties for couples bearing more children than allowed by the state
china is famous for its one-child population policy from the 1980s in which many drastic measures (eg: forced sterilization for couples with one child or infanticide of female babies) ensure decreasing population growth
arithmetic density
number of people in a given unit of area
does not take into account physiographic differences in that area
baby boomers
consist of individuals born post WWII (between 1946 and 1964)
baby boomers are the largest population cohort in US demographic history
as this large generation of individuals enter retirement, the burden of increasingly falling on the economically productive members of the country
baby bust
following the baby boom, the baby bust was a period of time during the 1960s and 1970s when fertility rates in the US dropped
the drop is attributed to large numbers of women from the baby boom generation who sought higher levels of education and more competitive jobs, causing them to marry later in life, causing them to have fewer children than the previous generation
cairo plan
in 1994, the UN, at the UN international conference on population and development, endorsed a strategy to stabilize global population at 7.27 billion no later than 2015
instead of focusing on top-down programs that limited reproduction in certain regions of the world, policies focused on giving women greater social and economic control of their lives
many argue that global drops in fertility are a result of women, particularly in developing regions, assuming greater control over their economic and reproductive lives
carrying capacity
essentially the number of people an area can sustain without critically straining its resource base
depends on both level of technology and determining an appropriate standard of living
advanced technologies can typically sustain many more people than more primitive technologies
on a global scale, if people in developing regions begin to consume at a rate comparable to the developed world’s consumption rates, the globe has certainly exceeded carrying capacity. if, however, the people on earth live more modestly, the number of people the earth can sustain will increase
chain migration
describes migrant flows from a common origin to the same destination. family or friends move first and get established within an area, paving the way for more friends and family to follow the same path
as number of migrants from a similar area congregate in one place, services specific to that population (both cultural and social) begin to accrue in that are
channelized migration
with channelized migration streams, the flows between a particular origin and destination are larger than would normally be the case, but are not the result of family or kinship ties as is the case with chain migration
for example, channelized migration occurs betweenTexas and California; in other words, a significantly larger number of people move from Texas to California and vice versa than migration models predict
cornucopians
in the 1980s, when many argued that stricter population controls needed to be placed on countries with high TFR (total fertility rate) in order to stimulate development, many economists argued that increasing populations stimulate rather than hinder economic development
“cornucopians” believe that with increasing populations come increasing opportunities for innovation
current global totals have not proven to have the dire consequences predicted by Malthus and his followers. while many across the globe die of starvation on a daily basis, this is more an issue of food distribution than food availability
crude birth rate (CBR)
number of live births in a single year for every 1000 people in a population
birth rates tend to be highest in least developed regions where both number of women at or near reproducing age and fertility rates are high
places with high birth rates tend to be countries where women’s access to education is low
places with high birth rates tend to have a high portion of their population engaged in agriculture; more children equal more labourers
crude death rate (CDR)
number of deaths in a country per 1,000 people
it is “crude” because it does not take into account the age structure of a population. eg: several countries in western europe have relatively high death rates because of a high proportion of individuals in older-age cohorts
demographic accounting equation
predicts population change within a particular area as a function of natural increase/decrease and in/out pigration
P(t+1) = P(t)…
+ B(t, t+1) - D(t, t+1): natural change
+ I(t, t+1) - E(t, t+1): net migration
Where: P = population B = births D = deaths I = immigration E = emigration t = time now t+1 = some time in the future
demographic momentum
tendency of a population to continue to grow in spite of stringent population policies or rapid fertility decline because of the large number of individuals in their childbearing years
in countries that implement policies encouraging or enforcing replacement-level fertility rates, it takes several generations before stable growth is achieved because of demographic momentum
demographic transition model
describes population growth stabilization as a function of economic development
STAGE 1: preindustrialization. a country is characterized by high birth and death rates and little-to-no growth
STAGE 2: as the country industrializes, birth rates remain high, death rates drop, and population growth is rapid
STAGE 3: birth rates begin to drop as a country becomes fully industrialized
STAGE 4 & 5: highly developed countries across the globe where population growth is stable or negative (in the case of stage 5)
dependency ratio
a measure of the economic impact of younger and older cohorts on the economically productive members of a population
younger cohorts are typically children under the age of fifteen (inelegible to work); older cohorts are over the age of sixty-four (retured members of a population)
in some countries the dependency ration includes only males in the economically productive cohort if the local culture prohibits women’s participation in the workforce
global growth doubling time
doubling in the amount of time it will take a particular population to double in size
countries with growth rates of 1% take approximately 70 years to double their population, whereas countries with 2% growth rates take only 35 years to double
when this growth rate is graphed, a J-curve represents the exponential growth
i the last couple of decades, growth rates have declined, population follows more of an S-curve, meaning greater stability
ecumene
the proportion of the earth’s surface that’s inhabited by humans
global population distribution patterns
sixty percent of the world’s population lives within 60 miles (98 km) of the ocean
population concentrates in areas with high soil arability/fertility, which also tend to have mild climates
population is becoming more urban
currently a little over half of the global population is urban with much higher rates in highly developed regions.
global refugee patterns
post 9/11, security issues have led many countries of the world, particularly western europe and north america, to tighten borders to individuals seeking asylum
in many african countries, borders are open to refugees such that countries in which refugees are fleeing from also host significant refugee populations
for example, several million refugees have fled Sudan as a result of civil war, but Sudan also hosts numerous refugees from neighbouring countries
guest workers
individuals who migrate temporarily to take advantage of job opportunities in other countries
send a significant portion of their pay, called remittances, back home to support friends and family
in some countries, remittances are a significant source of income for the national economy
HIV/AIDS
a major and dramatic exception to recent population growth trends, particularly in the developing world, where the epidemic is having great effects on birth rates, death rates, and life expectancy
currently the third most common cause of death worldwide and expected to surpass the black death of the 14th century as history’s worst ever epidemic
sub-saharan africa, particularly hard-hit by this disease, and some other countries, have had life expectancy cut in half with dramatic increases in death rates
illegal immigration
can be characterized as involuntary but unforced migrants
individuals choose to risk their lives in the migration decision; a decision that is motivated by dire economic situations within their own country
infant mortality
number of deaths during the first year of life per thousand live births
tends to be much higher in developing regions as it is strongly related to a country’s access to health care services
overall, rates have decreased significantly over the last 50 years
internal migration history of the US
the most significant internal migration movements in the US can be characterized in three waves:
WAVE 1: beginning with colonization, a movement of the population westward and movement from rural to urban areas as places become increasingly industrialized
WAVE 2: from the early 1940s through the 1970s a massive movement of African Americans from the rural south to cities in the South, North, and West
WAVE 3: post-WWII to the present day movement to the sun belt states (the fifteen states from North Carolina to Southern California and all the states south of that line)
internally displaced persons
people who have had to leave their home because of conflict, human rights abuse, war, or environmental catastrophes, but do not leave their country to seek safety
a good example in the US is the individuals whose homes were destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005
life expectancy
average number of years a person can be expected to live
number varies globally with highly developed countries experiencing much higher life expectancies that developing countries
varies within countries, within cities, among ethnicities, and even between sexes
migration
movement to a new activity space (eg: schools, grocery stores, and other places where everyday activities take place as a result of the move) or movement over country borders
international migration involves movement over country borders
emigration is movement out of a particular place, whereas immigration describes movement to a specific location
migratory movement within a country is called internal migration
natural increase vs natural decrease
the difference between CBR and CDR indicates natural growth or decline within a population
when births outnumber deaths, natural increase is occurring; when deaths outnumber births, a country experiences natural decrease
high rates of natural increase are most prevalent in developing countries. in highly developed countries, such as countries in western europe, natural decrease is becoming more common
natural increase variations
economic development has profound implications on health care, available employment opportunities, and nutrition among other factors contributing to growth
populations with better education tend to have lower rates of natural increase
gender empowerment: when women have more economic and political access, power, and education, fertility rates drop
some cultural traditions prohibit women from working outside the home and some traditions prohibit use of contraception
certain public policies can encourage or discourage couples to reproduce and can dramatically affect a country’s rate of natural increase
neo-malthusians
neo-malthusians, following in malthus’ footsteps, believe population growth to be a problem and provide the foundation for many antinatalist population policies
many neo-malthusians advocate “zero population growth” (ZPG) in which number of births and immigrants are equally counteracted by the number of deaths and emigrants
while ZPG may limit environmental repercussions of an expanding population, it does have social and economic consequences in the long term as a young population base does not exist to support both the local economy and an ever-increasing elderly population
overpopulation vs underpopulation
overpopulation is essentially a value judgment reflecting an opinion than an area does not have adequate resources to support the existing population: if an area is overpopulated, it has exceeded its carrying capacity
underpopulation describes scenarios in which areas or regions do not have enough people to fully exploit the local resource base
place utility
in the migration decision, “place utility” refers to the benefits a place offers to pull people to that destination. benefits include things like good school systems, good climate, job opportunities, recreational opportunities, etc
population centroid of the USA
the geographic center of the US; essentially the balancing point of the US population if the country is conceived of as a plane
historically, has been on the east coast, with continued migration west and south. the center is progressively moving and is currently thought to be somewhere in south-central Missouri
population data
includes total population counts and rates such as crude birth rate, crude death rate, and so on: from the UN statistical office, the world bank, the population reference bureau, and from national censuses
in developing regions, data from censuses can be unreliable as gathering detailed figures proves complicated; accessibility issues make accurate data collection nearly impossible
in the US, the decennial census provides detailed and mostly accurate information on the demographic characteristics of the country
population density
crude density, also called arithmetic density, is total number of people divided by the total land area
crude density is a “crude” number because it does not provide a full picture of the relationship between people and land
issues of density provide a good example of how demography and development can overlap: for example, physiographic density represents the ratio between number of people and amount of arable land in a given unit of area
population geography
similar to demography in its focus on demographic rates (eg: birth rates, death rates, fertility, etc) except that population geographers investigate patterns from a spatial perspective - why patterns exist, where they exist, and the implications of current population patterns
as the global total of people on this planet continues to rise, geographers become increasingly concerned with how the world can sustainably provide for growing populations
population patterns often overlap with economic development patterns: for example, places with the highest fertility rates are typically less economically developed.
population growth rate
a country’s growth rate is determined by its natural increase, (birth rate minus the death rate), expressed as a percentage
for example, a country’s natural increase with a CBR of 22 (per 1,000 population) and a CDR of 12 (per 1,000) is 22-12 or 10 per 1,000, translating to a growth rate of 1 percent
currently, high growth rates are in developing countries such as el salvador, mozambique, and oman, where growth rates are above 2 percent
population growth since 1750
SEE CARD #112
population pyramid
population pyramids also called age-sex pyramids
in general, pyramids come in four different shapes:
- RAPID GROWTH distinguished by a wide base (most common in developing countries)
- STABILITY, characterized by a rectangular shape indicting stable growth (common in developed countries)
- DECLINE, in which the base is smaller than previous cohorts
- DISRUPTED GROWTH, which shows significant gaps in the pyramid, usually as a result of war, strict population policies, or other drastic events
population pyramid: US
SEE CARD #114
pronatalist population policies
typically exist in countries where population in declining, and involve providing incentives for women to have children
in Europe, where negative population growth is common, countries have instituted programs that encourage births through subsidized child care costs, offering generous maternity leave packages and other services to reproducing women
some countries outside of europe, for example singapore, are instituting pronatalist population policies in response to dramatic results of antinatalist policies in previous decades
ravenstein’s migration laws
describe voluntary migration patterns: the laws that still apply today
- every migration flow generally generates a counterflow
- the majority of migrants move a short distance
- migrants who move long distances tend to choose big city destinations
- urban residents are less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas
- families are less likely to make international moves than young adults
refugees
individuals who cross national boundaries to seek safety and asylum
typically reluctant or forced migrants who leave their country because of war, famine, environmental catastrophes, or religious persecution
reluctant and forced migration
in forced migration, an individual migrates against his or her will
somewhere between voluntary and forced migration is reluctant migration where an individual reluctantly chooses to move because factors as the current location prohibit them from remaining there
a common example of an internal forced migration event in the US is the trail of tears in the 1830s during which Native Americans from numerous eastern tribes had to migrate west (to what is now Oklahoma)
a common example of an international forced migration event is the migration of million of africans to north and south america during the slave trade beginning in the 1500s
rust belt
in the 1960s and 1970s, large numbers of white, middle-class americans moved from older northeastern and midwestern cities to the south and west coast (the sun belt)
the area people were moving from in the upper midwest became known as the rust belt. these previous industrial powerhouses lost much of their economic base to other parts of the country and other parts of the world
sun belt migration
movement of the US population in the last several decades to the sun belt states has dramatically altered the balance of political and economic power as california, florida, and texas (all sun belt states), are now three of the four most populous states in the country. they carry a disproportionate number of electoral votes, have large congressional delegations, and are dominant in many economic sectors such as technology energy production and agriculture
sustainability
sustainability is simply defined as using resources in a manner that supplies existing population while not compromising availability of resources for future generations
while limiting population growth relives pressure of future generations’ resource needs, the bigger and thornier problem in thinking about sustainability is global consumption patterns, which are geographically very uneven
during the 1994 UN meeting on population and development in Cairo, developing countries criticized the disproportional focus on limiting population growth in developing regions, arguing that core nations needed to curb their consumption rates
thomas malthus
according to thomas malthus (1798), carrying capacity is limited by food availability
food production grows arithmetically, whereas population grows geometrically or exponentially, meaning eventually food supplies cannot support an ever-increasing population
in reality, malthus is somewhat accurate: eventually population growth does reach a carrying capacity called a homeostatic plateau that extends with each technological revolution
for example, the industrial revolution allowed for tremendous advancements in food production, greatly expanding the globe’s carrying capacity
total fertility rate (TFR)
total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years (ages fifteen to forty-nine)
TFR provides a more accurate picture of fertility in a country than CBR as it allows demographers to predict the birth rates of a particular cohort over time
Replacement level fertility: a fertility rate typically slightly higher than two (to account for infant/childhood mortality and childless women)
voluntary migration and push-and-pull factors
voluntary migration is when an individual chooses to move, typically based on various push-and-pull factors
pull factors are characteristics at a destination that draw a migrant to that place
common pull factors include housing opportunities, climate, educational opportunities, and employment opportunities
push factors are characteristics at an individual’s current location that make him or her want to leave
push factors include negative environmental characteristics, unemployment, lack of good and services, and high cost of living among other things
