Definitions Flashcards
absolute distance
a distance that can be measured with a standard unit of length such as a mile or kilometer
absolute location
the exact position of an object or place, measured within the spatial coordinates of a grid system
accessibility
the relative ease with which a destination may be reached from some other place
anthropogenic
human-induced changes on the natural environment
azimuthal projection
a map projection in which the plane is the most developable surface
breaking point
the outer edge of a city’s sphere of influence, used in the law of retail gravitation to describe the area of a city’s hinterlands that depend on that city for its retail supplies
carl sauer
geographer from the University of California Berkley who defined the concept of cultural landscape as the fundamental unit of geographical analysis. This landscape results from the interaction between humans and the physical environment. Sauer argued that virtually no landscape has escaped alteration by human activities
cartograms
a type of thematic map that transforms space such that the political unit with the greatest value for some type of data is represented by the largest relative area
cartography
the theory and practice of making visual representations of earth’s surface in the form of maps
choropleth map
a thematic map that uses tones or colours to represent spatial data as average values per unit area
cognitive map
an image of a portion of earth’s surface that an individual creates in his or her mind. cognitive maps can include knowledge of actual locations and relationships among locations as well as personal perceptions and preferences of particular places
complementarity
the actual or potential relationship between two places, usually referring to economic interactions
connectivity
the degree or economic, social, cultural, or political connection between two places (topological space)
contagious diffusion
the spread of a disease, an innovation, or cultural traits through direct contact with another person or another place
coordinate system
a standard grid, composed of lines of latitude and longitude, used to determine the absolute location of any object, place, or feature on earth’s surface
cultural ecology
the study of the interactions between societies and the natural environments which they live
cultural landscape
the human-modified natural landscape specifically containing the imprint of a particular culture or society
distance decay effect
the decrease in interaction between two phenomena, places, or people, as the distance between them increases
dot maps
thematic maps that use points to show the precise locations of specific observations or occurrences, such as crimes, car accidents, or births
earth system science
a systematic approach to physical geography that looks at the interaction between earth’s physical systems and processes on a global scale
environmental geography
the intersection between human and physical geography, which explores the spatial impacts humans have on the physical environment and vice versa
eratosthenes
the head librarian at alexandria during the third century BC; one of the first cartographer. performed a remarkably accurate computation of earth’s circumference. he is also credited with coining the term geography
expansion diffusion
the spread of ideas, innovations, fashion, or other phenomena to surrounding areas through contact and exchange
fertile crescent
the name given to the crescent-shaped area of fertile land stretching from the lower Nile Valley along the east Mediterranean coast and into Syria and present-day Iraq where agriculture and early civilization first began about 8000 BC
formal region
definition of regions based on common themes such as similarities in language, climate, land use, etc
friction of distance
a measure of how much absolute distance affects the interaction between two places
fuller projection
a type of map projection that maintains the accurate size and shape of landmasses but completely rearranges direction such that the four cardinal directions - north, south, east, and west - no longer have any meaning
functional region
definition of regions based on common interaction (or function), for example, a boundary line drawn around the circulation of a particular newspaper
geographical information system (GIS)
a set of computer tools used to capture, store, transform, analyze, and display geographic data
geoid
the actual shape of earth, which is rough and oblate, or slightly squashed. earth’s diameter is longer around the equator than along the north-south meridians
global positioning system (GPS)
a set satellites used to help determine location anywhere on earth’s surface with a portable electronic device
gravity model
a mathematical formula that describes the level of interaction between two places, based on the size of their populations and their distance from each other
hierarchical diffusion
a type of diffusion in which something is transmitted between places because of a physical or cultural community between those places
human geography
the study of the spatial variation in the patterns and processes related to human activity
idiographic
pertaining to the unique facts or characteristics of a particular place
international dateline
the line of longitude that marks where each new day begins centered on the 180th meridian
intervening opportunities
if one place has a demand for some good or service and two places have a supply of equal price and quality, the supplier closer to the buyer will represent an intervening opportunity, thereby blocking the third from being able to share its supply of goods or services. intervening opportunities are frequently used because transportation costs usually decrease within proximity
isoline
a map line that connects points of equal or very similar values
large scale
a relatively small ratio between map units and ground units. large-scale maps usually have higher resolution and cover much smaller regions than small-scale maps
latitude
the angular distance north or south of the equator, defined by lines of latitude or parallels
law of retail gravitation
a law stating that people will be drawn to larger cities to conduct their business since larger cities have a wider influence on the surrounding hinterlands
location charts
on a map, a chart or graph that gives specific statistical information about a particular political unit or jurisdiction
longitude
the angular distance east or west of the prim meridian, defined by lines of longitude, or meridians
map projection
a mathematical method that involves transferring earth’s sphere onto a flat surface. this term can also be used to describe the type of map that results from the process of projecting. all map projections have distortions in area, direction, distance, or shape
map scale
the ratio between the size of an area on a map and the actual size of that same area on earth’s surface
george perkins marsh
an inventor, diplomat, politician, and scholar, his classic work, man and nature, or physical geography as modified by human action, provided the first description of the extent to which natural systems had been impacted by human actions
mercator projection
a true conformal cylindrical map projection, the mercator projection is particularly useful for navigation since it maintains accurate direction. mercator projections are famous for their distortion in area that makes landmasses at the poles appear oversized
meridian
a line of longitude that runs north-south. all lines of longitude are equal in length and intersect at the poles
natural landscape
the physical landscape or environment that has not been affected by human activities
nomothetic
concepts or rules that can be applied universally
parallel
an east-west line of latitude that runs parallel to the equator and that marks distance north or south of the equator
perceptual region
highly individualized definition of regions based on perceived commonalities in culture and landscape
peters projection
an equal-area projection purposely centered on africa in an attempt to treat all regions of earth equally
physical geography
the realm of geography that studies the structures, processes, distributions, and changes through time of the natural phenomena of earth’s surface
preference map
a map that displays individual preferences for certain places
prime meridian
an imaginary line passing through the royal observatory in greenwich, england, that marks the 0 degree line of longitude
proportional symbols map
a thematic map in which the size of a chosen symbol - such as the circle or triangle - indicates the relative magnitude of some statistical value for a given geographic region
ptolemy
roman geographer-astronomer, author of guide to geography, which included maps containing a grid system of latitude and longitude
qualitative data
data associated with a more humanistic approach to geography, often collected through interviews, empirical observations, or the interpretation of texts, artwork, old maps, and other archives
quantitative data
data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques used to analyze spatial location and association
quantitative revolution
a period in human geography associated with the wide-spread adoption of mathematical models and statistical techniques
reference map
a map type that shows reference information for a particular place, making it useful for finding landmarks and for navigation
region
a territory that encompasses many places that share similar physical and/or cultural attributes
regional geography
the study of geographic regions
relative distance
a measure of distance that includes the cost of overcoming the friction of absolute distance separating two places. relative distance often describes the amount of social, cultural, or economic connectivity between two places
relative location
the position of a place relative to the places around it
relocation diffusion
the diffusion of ideas, innovations, behaviours, and so on from one place to another through migration
remote sensing
the observation and mathematical measurement of earth’s surface using aircraft and satellites. the sensors include photographic images, thermal images, multispectral scanners, and radar images
resolution
a map’s smallest discernable unit. if, for example, an object has to be one kilometer long in order to show up on a map, that map’s resolution is one kilometer
robinson projection
a projection that attempts to balance several possible projection errors. it does not maintain area, shape, distance, or direction completely accurately, but it minimizes error in each
sense of place
feelings evoked by people as a result of certain experiences and memories associated with a particular place
site
the absolute location of a place, described by local relief landforms, and other cultural or physical characteristics
situation
the relative location of a place in relation to the physical and cultural characteristics of the surrounding area and the connections and interdependencies within that system; a place’s spatial context
small scale
a map scale ratio in which the ratio of units on the map to units on earth is quite small. small-scale maps usually depict large areas
spatial diffusion
the ways in which phenomena, such as technological innovations, cultural trends, or even outbreaks of disease, travel over space
spatial perspective
an intellectual framework that looks at the particular locations of a specific phenomenon, how and why that phenomenon is where it is, and finally, how it is spatially related to phenomena in other places
sustainability
the concept of using earth’s resources in such a way that they provide for people’s needs in the present without diminishing earth’s ability to provide for future generations
thematic layers
individual maps of specific features that are overlaid on one another in a geographical information system to understand and analyze a spatial relationship
thematic map
a type of map that displays one or more variables - such as population or income level - within a specific area
time-space convergence
the idea that distance between some places is actually shrinking as technology enables more rapid communication and increased interaction among those places
topographic maps
maps that use isoline to represent constant elevations. if you took a topographic map out into the field and walked exactly along the path of isoline on your map, you would always stay at the same elevation
topological space
the amount of connectivity between places regardless of the absolute distance separating them
transferability
the costs involved in moving goods from one place to another
visualization
use of sophisticated software to create dynamic computer maps, some of which are three dimensional or interactive
W.D. Pattison
he claimed that geography drew from four distinct traditions the earth-science tradition, the culture-environment tradition, the locational tradition, and the area-analysis tradition
age-sex distribution
a model used in population geography that describes the ages and number of males and females within a given population; also called a popula
arithmetic density
the number of people living in a given unit area
baby boom
a cohort of individuals born in the united states between 1946 and 1964, which was just after WWII in a time of relative peace and prosperity. these conditions allowed for better education for job opportunities, encouraging high rates of birth marriage and fertility
baby bust
period of time during the 1960s and 1970s when fertility rates in the US dropped as large numbers of women from the baby boom generation sought higher levels of education and more competitive jobs, causing them to marry later in life. as such, the fertility rate dropped considerably, in contrast to the baby boom, in which fertility rates were quite high
carrying capacity
the largest number of people that the environment of a particular area can sustainably support
census tract
small county subdivisions, usually containing between 2,500 and 8,000 persons, delineated by the US census bureau as areas of relatively uniform population characteristics, economic status, and living conditions
chain migration
the migration event in which individuals follow the migratory path of preceding friends or family members to an existing community
child mortality rate
number of deaths per thousand children within the first five years of life
cohort
a population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit
cotton belt
the term by which the american south used to be known, as cotton historically dominated the agricultural economy of the region. the same area is now known as the new south or sun belt because people have migrated here from older cities in the industrial north for a better climate and new job opportunities
crude birth rate
the number of live births per year per 1,000 people
crude death rate
the number of deaths per year per 1,000 people
demographic accounting equation
an equation that summarizes the amount of growth of decline in a population within a country during a particular time period taking into account both natural increase and net migration
demographic transition model
a sequence of demographic changes i which a country moves from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates through time
demography
the study of human populations, including their temporal or spatial dynamics
dependency ratio
the ratio of the number of people who are either too old or young to provide for themselves to the number of people who must support them through their own labour. this is usually expressed in the form n:100 where n equals the number of dependents
doubling time
time period required for a population experiencing exponential growth to double in size completely
emigration
the process of moving out of a particular country, usually the individual person’s country of origin
exponential growth
growth that occurs when a fixed percentage of new people is added to a population each year. exponential growth is compounded because the fixed growth rate applies to an ever-increasing population
forced migration
the migration event in which individuals are forced to leave a country against their will
generation x
a term coined by artist and author douglas coupland to describe people born in the US between the years of 1965 and 1980. this post-baby boom generation will have to support the baby boom cohort as they head into their retirement years.
immigration
the process of individuals moving into a new country with the intentions of remaining there
infant mortality rate
the percentage of children of children who die before their first birthday within a particular are or country
internal migration
the permanent or semipermanent movement of individuals within a particular country
intervening obstacles
any forces or factors that may limit human migration
life expectancy
the average age individuals are expected to live, which varies across space, between genders, and even between races
thomas malthus
author of essay on the principle of population (1798) who claimed that population grows at an exponential rate while food production increases arithmetically, and thereby that, eventually, population growth would outpace food production
maternal mortality rate
number of deaths per thousand of women giving birth
migration
a long-term move of a person from one political jurisdiction to another
natural increase rate
the difference between the number of births and number of deaths within a particular country
neo-malthusian
advocacy of population control programs to ensure enough resources for current and future populations
overpopulation
a value judgement based on the notion that the resources of a particular area are not great enough to support that area’s current population
physiological density
a ratio of human population to the area of cropland, used in less developed countries dominated by subsistence agriculture
population density
a measurement of the number of persons per unit land area
population geography
a division of human geography concerned with spatial variations in distribution, composition, growth, and movements of population
population pyramid
a model used in population geography to show the age and sex distribution of a particular population
pull factors
attractions that draw migrants to certain place, such as pleasant climate and employment or education opportunities
push factors
incentives for potential migrants to leave a place, such as a harsh climate, economic recession, or political turmoil
refugees
people who leave their home because they are forced out, but not because they are being officially relocated or enslaved
rust belt
the northern industrial states of the US including ohio, michigan, and pennsylvania, in which heavy industry was once the dominant economic activity. the the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, these states lost much of their economic base to economically attractive regions of the US and to countries where labour was cheaper, leaving old machinery to rust in the moist northern climate
sun blet
a US region, mostly comprised of southeastern and southwestern states, which has grown most dramatically since WWII
total fertility rate
the average number of children born to a woman during her childbearing years
voluntary migration
movement of an individual who consciously and voluntarily decides to locate to a new area - the opposite of forced migration
zero population growth
proposal to end population growth through a variety of official and nongovernmental family planning programs
acculturation
the adoption of cultural traits, such as language, by one group under the influence of another
animism
most prevalent in africa and the americas, doctrine in which the world is seen as being infused with spiritual and even supernatural powers
artifact
any item that represents a material aspect of culture
buddhism
system of belief that seeks to explain ultimate realities for all people - such as the nature of suffering and the path toward self-realization
caste system
system in india that gives every indian a particular place in the social hierarchy from birth. individuals may improve the position they inherit in the caste system in their next life through their actions, or karmar. after many lives of good karmar, they may be relieved from cycle of life and win their place in heaven
christianity
the world’s most widespread religion. christianity is a monotheistic, universal religion that uses missionaries to expand its members worldwide. the three major categories of christianity are roman catholic, protestant, and eastern orthodox
creole
a pidgin language that evolves to the point at which it becomes the primary language of the people who speak it
cultural complex
the group of traits that define a particular culture
cultural extinction
obliteration of an entire culture by war, disease, acculturation, or a combination of the three
cultural geography
the subfield of human geography that looks at how cultures vary over space
cultural hearth
locations on earth’s surface where specific cultures first aros
culture imperialism
the dominance of one culture over another
cultural trait
the specific customs that are part of the everyday life of a particular culture, such as language, ideology, behaviour, technology, and government
custom
practice followed by the people of a particular cultural group
denomination
a particular religious group, usually associated with differing protestant belief systems
dialect
geographically distinct versions of a single language that vary somewhat from the parental form
diaspora
people who come from a common ethnic background but who live in different regions outside of the home and their ethnicity
ecumene
the proportion of earth inhabited by humans
environmental determinism
a doctrine that claims that cultural traits are formed and controlled by environmental conditions
esperanto
a constructed international auxiliary language incorporating aspects of numerous linguistic traditions to create a universal means of communication
ethnic cleansing
the systematic attempt to remove all people of a particular ethnicity from a country or region either by forced migration or genocide
ethnic neighbourhood
an area within a city containing members of the same ethnic background
ethnic religion
religion that is identified with a particular ethnic or tribal group that does not seek new converts
ethnicity
refers to a group of people who sare a common identity
evangelical religions
religion in which an effort is made to spread a particular belief system
folk culture
refers to a constellation of cultural practices that form the sights, smells, sounds, and rituals of everyday existence in the traditional societies in which they developed
fundamentalism
the strict adherence to a particular doctrine
genocide
a premeditated effort to kill everyone from a particular ethnic group
ghetto
a segregated ethnic area within a city
global religion
religion in which members are numerous and widespread and their doctrines might appeal to different people from any region of the globe
hinduism
a cohesive and unique society, most prevalent in india, that integrates spiritual beliefs with daily practices and official institutions such as the caste system
indo-european family
language family including the germanic and romance languages that is spoken by about 50% of the world’s people
islam
a monotheistic religion based on the belief that there is one god, allah, and that muhammad was allah’s prophet. islam is based in the ancient city of mecca, saudi arabia, the birthplace of muhammad
isoglosses
geographical boundary lines where different linguistic features meet
judaism
the first major monotheistic religion. it is based on a sense of ethnic identity, and its adherents tend to form tight-knit communities wherever they live
language extinction
this occurs when a language is no longer in use by any living people. thousands of languages have become extinct over the eons since language first developed, but the process of language extinction has accelerated greatly during the past 300 years
language family
a collection of many languages, all of which came from the same original tongue long ago, that have since evolved different characteristics
language group
a set of languages with a relatively recent common origin and many similar characteristics
lingua franca
an extremely simple language that combines aspects of two or more other, more complex languages usually used for quick and efficient communication
literacy
the ability to read and write
local culture
a set of common experiences or customs that shapes the identity of a place and the people who live there. local cultures are often the subjects of preservation or economic development efforts
local religion
religions that are spiritually bound to particular regions
minority
a racial or ethnic group smaller than and differing from the majority race or ethnicity in a particular area or region
missionary
a person of a particular faith that travels in order to recruit new members into the faith represented
monotheism
the worship of only one god
multicultural
having to do with many cultures
official language
language in which all government business occurs in a country
pidgin
language that may develop when two groups of people with different languages meet. the pidgin has some characteristics of each language
pilgrimage
a journey to a place of religious importance
polyglot
a multilingual state
polytheism
the worship of more than one god
pop culture
dynamic culture based in large, heterogeneous societies permitting considerable individualism, innovation, and change; having a money-based economy, division of labour into professions, secular institutions of control, and weak interpersonal ties, and producing and consuming machine-made goods
race
a group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blod types, genetic code patterns or genetically inherited characteristics
romance languages
any of the languages derived from latin including italian, spanish, french, and romanian
shaman
the single person who takes on the roles of priest, counselor, and physician and acts as a conduit to the supernatural world in a shamanist culture
sino-tibetan family
language area that spreads through most of southeast asia and china and is comprised of chinese, burmese, tibetan, japanese, and korean
syncretic
traditions that borrow from both the past and present
toponym
place names given to certain features on the land such as settlements, terrain features, and streams
tradition
a cohesive collection of customs within a cultural group
transculturation
the expansion of cultural traits through diffusion, adoption, and other related processes
universalizing religion
religion that seeks to unite people from all over the globe
antecedent boundaries
a boundary line established before an area is populated
balkanization
the contentious political process by which a state may break up into smaller countries
buffer state
a relatively small country sandwiched between two larger powers. the existence of buffer states may help to prevent dangerous conflicts between powerful countries
centrifugal forces
forces that tend to divide a country
centripetal forces
forces that tend to unite or bind a country together
colonialism
the expansion and perpetuation of an empire
commonwealth of independent states
confederacy of independent states of the former soviet union that have united because of their common economic and administrative needs
compact state
a state that possesses a roughly circular, oval, or rectangular territory in which the distance from the geometric center is relatively equal in all directions
confederation
a form of an international organization that brings several autonomous states together for a common purpose
democratization
the process of establishing representative and accountable forms of government led by popularly elected officials
devolution
the delegation of legal authority from a central government to lower levels of political organization, such as a state or country
domino theory
the idea that political destabilization in one country can lead to collapse of political stability in neighbouring countries, starting a chain reaction of collapse
east/west divide
geographic separation between the largely democratic and free-market countries of western europe and the americas from the communist and socialist countries of eastern europe and asia
electoral college
a certain number of electors from each state proportional to and seemingly representative of that state’s population. each elector chooses a candidate believing they are representing their constituency’s choice. the candidate who receives a higher proportion of electoral votes within a state receives all the electoral votes for that state
electoral vote
the decision of a particular state elector that represents the dominant views of that elector’s state
elongated state
a state whose territory is long and narrow in shape
enclaves
any small and relatively homogenous group or region surrounded by another larger and different group or region
european union
international organization comprised of western european countries to promote free trade among members
exclave
a bounded territory that is part of a particular state but is separated from it by the territory of a different state
federalism
a system of government in which power is distributed among certain geographical territories rather than concentrated within a central government
fragmented state
a state that is not a contiguous whole but rather separated parts
frontier
an area where borders are shifting and weak and where peoples of different cultures or nationalities meet and lay claim to the land
geometric boundary
political boundaries that are defined and delimited by straight lines
geopolitics
the study of the interplay between political relations and the territorial context in which they occur
gerrymandering
the designation of voting districts so as to favour a particular political party or candidate
heartland theory
hypothesis proposed by halford mackinder that held that any political power based in the heart of eurasia could gain enough strength to eventually dominate the world
imperialism
the perpetuation of a colonial empire even after it is no longer politically sovereign
international organization
an alliance of two or more countries seeking cooperation with each other without giving up either’s autonomy or self-determination
landlocked state
a state is completely surrounded by the land of other states, which gives it a disadvantage in terms of accessibility to and from international trade routes
law of the sea
law establishing states’ rights and responsibilities concerning the ownership and use of the earth’s seas and oceans and their resources
lebensraum
hitler’s expansionist theory based on a drive to acquire “living space” for the german people
microstate
a state or territory that is small in both population and area
nation
tightly knit group of individuals sharing a common language, ethnicity, religion, and other cultural attributes
nationalism
a sense of national pride to such an extent of exalting one nation above all others
nation-state
a country whose population possesses a substantial degree of cultural homogeneity and unity
north american free trade agreement
agreement signed on January1, 1994, that allows the opening of borders between the US, Mexico and Canada
NATO
an international organization that has joined together for military purposes
north/south divide
the economic division between the wealthy countries of europe and north america, japan, and australia, and the generally poorer countries of asia, africa, and latin america
organic theory
the view that states resemble biological organisms with life cycles that include stages of youth, maturity, and old age
organization of petroleum exporting countries
an international economic organization whose member countries all produce and export oil
perforate state
a state whose territory completely surrounds that of another state
physical boundary
political boundaries that correspond with prominent physical features such as mountain ranges or rivers
political geography
the spatial analysis of political phenomena and processes
popular vote
the tally of each individual’s vote within a given geographic are
prorupted state
a state that exhibits a narrow, elongated land extension leading away from the main territory
reapportionment
the process of a reallocation of electoral seats to defined territories
rectangular state
a state whose territory is rectangular in shape
redistricting
the drawing of new electoral district boundary lines in response to population changes
relic boundaries
old political boundaries that no longer exist as international borders, but that have left an enduring mark on the local cultural or environmental geography
rimland theory
nocholas spykman’s theory that the domination of the coastal fringes of eurasia would provide the baste for world conquest
self-determination
the right of a nation to govern itself autonomously
sovereignty
supreme of independent political power
state
a politically organized territory that is administered by a sovereign government and is recognized by the international community
stateless nation
a group of people with a common political identity who do not have a territorially defined, sovereign country of their own
states’ rights
rights and powers believed to be in the authority of the state rather than the federal government
subsequent boundaries
boundary line established after an area has been settled that considers the social and cultural characteristics of the area
superimposed boundaries
boundary line drawn in an area ignoring the existing cultural pattern
supranational organization
organization of three or more states to promote shared objectives
territorial dispute
any dispute over land ownership
territorial organization
political organization that distributes political power in more easily governed units of land
theocracy
a state whose government is either believed to be divinely guided or a state under the control of a group of religious leaders
unitary state
a state governed constitutionally as a unit, without internal divisions or a federalist delegation of powers
united nations
a global supranational organization established at the end of WWII to foster international security and cooperation
