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HSC ANCIENT HISTORY > Pompeii and Herculaneum CORE: 2 > Flashcards

Pompeii and Herculaneum CORE: 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Detail the geographical context of Pompeii.

A
  • Sources: Map of Campania, Strabo “Geography”, Pliny the Elder “Natural History”, Florus “Brief History”.
  • located in Rome
  • near the Bay of Naples
  • Southern area of Campania
  • built on volcanic plateau, between the Sarno River and Mount Vesuvius
  • 66 hectares
  • connected coast with fertile agricultural region inland
  • south of Mount Vesuvius
  • economic prosperity due to fertile plains
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2
Q

Detail the geographical context of Herculaneum.

A
  • Source: Map of Campania
  • located in Rome
  • near Bay of Naples
  • South area of Campania
  • 7km from Mount Vesuvius
  • steep landscape
  • approx: 12-20 hectares (entire town not yet excavated)
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3
Q

What are the resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

A

• access to natural water springs for drinking
- this water went through an aqueduct
• ideal climate for growing food: hot dry summer, mild moist winters, early spring
• natural vegetation grew along rivers e.g. willow trees, rosemary
• used pumice as millstones for grinding grain and pressing olives
- also used to build roads and buildings
• flowers, roses, used for perfume
• olives used for olive oil
• grapes used to produce wine
• coast provided seafood e.g. tuna, anchovies, eels
- fish  garum

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4
Q

Seneca’s evidence on resources.

A
  • pleasant bay

* bounded by sea

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5
Q

Pliny the Elders evidence on resources.

A
  • life sustaining
  • healthy atmosphere
  • mild climate
  • forest
  • corn, vines and olives
  • sheep
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6
Q

The Fresco from the House of the Centenary (Pompeii) tells us what?

A

Shows fertile plains, grapes, birds, rich nature.

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7
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, what’s the area and the type of roads?

A

Area: 66-67 hectares
only two-thirds excavated
Roads: narrow valleys, 5 metres wide

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8
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, what’s the gradient slope, architectural influence?

A

Gradient/Slope: 10-40m above sea level

Architectural influence: Greek

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9
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, water, houses, gates.

A

Water: flowed into water tower from aqueduct in Misenum
• went to three main pipes
Houses: one storey

Gates: 8 gates named after towns they lead to

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10
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, towers, public fountains, traffic.

A

Towers: 12

42 Public Fountains

Heavy traffic, imprint on roads

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11
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, what’s the area and the type of roads?

A

Area: 12-20 hectares
- only 4 complete insulae blocks excavated

Roads: wide for Roman town, 2.5-7 metres wide
- Streets paved with stone

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12
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, what’s the gradient slope, architectural influence?

A

Gradient/Slope: very steep

Architectural influence: Greek

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13
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, water, houses,

A

Water: through drains, flowed into fountains from aqueducts
Houses: two storey

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14
Q

Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, public fountains, traffic.

A

3 Fountains

Less traffic, better drainage

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15
Q

Ancient Writers for Pompeii and Herculaneum.

A

Pliny the Younger - Letters: details of the eruption
Strabo - Geography: geographical setting, historical background of Pompeii
Suetonius - Titus: Relief work in Campania after eruption
Dio Cassius – Roman History: Eruption
Pliny the Elder – Natural History: Geography of Pompeii and Herculaneum

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16
Q

Official Inscriptions in P/H

A

Official inscriptions
• at Hall of the Augustales: Herculaneum
• family tomb of Clodii: “Aulus Clodius Flaccus, son of Aulus… on the next day in the Amphitheatre (he presented) by himself 30 pairs of athletes and 5 pairs of gladiators” (CIL X 1074d)

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17
Q

Graffiti in P/H

A

• near Amphitheatre in Pompeii of actors: “Actius, master of stage performers”

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18
Q

Wall paintings and frescos? P/H

A

paint painted on wet plaster, become fixed as it dries

• Sappho fresco: Pompeii

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19
Q

Statues? P/H

A

MARCUS NONIUS BALBUS: HERCULANEUM

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20
Q

Mosaics P/H

A

House of Faun Pompeii

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21
Q

Human remains P/H

A
  • Skeletons found in Boatsheds at Herculaneum

* Plaster cast bodies Pompeii

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22
Q

Animal remains P/H

A

• Chained dog at Museum at Boscoreale

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23
Q

What are limitations of sources?

A
  • Incomplete sources
  • Problems dating political notices
  • Parts of both Herculaneum and Pompeii have not been excavated
  • Lack of written sources about every day life
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24
Q

Reliability and Evaluation of Sources?

A
  • Where was it found?
  • Who made it?
  • When was it written?
  • Who wrote it?
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25
Q

Evidence of the eruption?

A
  • Date: 24th August AD 79
  • 11 different accounts
  • 2 x coins Titus (emperor at the time)
  • preparing for harvest
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26
Q

Pliny the Youngers letters o Tacitus?

A

Letter 1: Uncle’s death during eruption: Pliny the Elder
- describes initial stages of eruption (plinian phase)
Letter 2: describes own activities during eruption
“Behind us were frightening dark clouds, rent by lightning twisted and hurled, opening to reveal huge figures of flame”
Sigurdsson: Pliny’s letters are first eyewitness to volcanic eruption
(reconstructed phases of the eruption by examining the given sizes in the strata)

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27
Q

Geological evidence of the eruption?

A

TWO phases of the Eruption
 The Plinian Phase: initial burst of pumice, ash and stone
 Nuee ardente: pyroclastic surge

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28
Q

Buildings as evidence for the eruption.

A

• The damage done to the buildings throughout the eruption tells us the nature of the eruption and the fact that it actually did occur

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29
Q

Human remains as evidence for the eruption.

A

• Plaster casts
• Skeletal remains
• shows us what they thought were valuables
Causes of death:
• Baxter  Out of 41 bodies studied, only half would have died from asphyxiation and thermal shock
• Collapsing of buildings and accumulation of ash/debris
• Pyroclastic surge (Herculaneum)  killed instantly

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30
Q

Social structure: Men (upper class) (freeborn)

A

– Had full legal rights
– Could hold political office
– Controlled public finances, spaces and religion
– Privileged seats in Amphitheatre and Theatre
– Statues and tombs erected
– Evidence: Marcus Nonius Balbus

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31
Q

Women (upper class) (freeborn)

A 
–	could not hold political office
–	under legal control 
–	could own property 
–	conducted businesses 
–	constructed buildings and tombs 
–	held priesthoods 
–	Statues and tombs erected
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32
Q

Example of upper class women.

A

Source: Portrait of Terentius Neo and his Wife, from House of Julia Felix
• read and write
• sung and played the lyre (small harp)
• believed educated women were better wives and women

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33
Q

Eumachia?

A

• Father rich brick manufacturer
• used wealth to build the collegium of the fullers in the Forum
Inscription: “To Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess; the fullers (set this up)”

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34
Q

Business women in P/H

A

partnership with husbands

  • allowed to earn profit
  • could own property
  • not allowed to become bankers
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35
Q

Tradeswomen in P/H

A

worked in homes, making and mending clothes

  • earned little money
  • employed in fullonicae to brush and thicken cloth
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36
Q

Slave women in P/H

A

duties dependent on needs of owner
- cooking, cleaning and nannies
- personal attendants for wealthy upper class women
- some well treated
gold snake bracelet in Pompeii inscribed: “from master to his slave girl”

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37
Q

Prostitutes in P/H

A
  • act not illegal

- patricians and Equites forbidden to become prostitutes

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38
Q

Freedmen ‘liberti’

A
  • men and women freed from slavery
  • worked for former masters
  • many become wealthy and influential
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39
Q

Freed ‘men’?

A

– Could be voted in elections
– Owned businesses
– Participated in some religious cults

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40
Q

Freed ‘women’

A

– Could not hold formal political office

– Some worked for former masters

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41
Q

Slaves?

A

40% of population
– few tombstones attributed to slaves
– Roman Empire relied on slaves for labour
– large household could own hundreds of slaves
– considered property
– no legal rights
– could not take action against owner for mistreatment
– children property of owner
– once freed had to buy children from owner

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42
Q

Upper class made up of?

A
  1. Patrician
    • toga with purple stripe
  2. Equites
    • toga with narrow purple stripe and gold ring
    • achieved status by holding public office
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43
Q

Middle Class?

A
  • Freed citizens: Men and women who made moderate living through businesses such as fulling, bread making and wine production
  • provided essentials goods and services
  • would work for past owners in businesses, although majority of profit went to owner
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44
Q

Local Political life in P/H overall?

A

 Self governing town BUT subject to imperial rule by Rome
o Nero banned gladiatorial contests for 10 years in 59 AD
 Only male citizens could vote
 Women could not hold political office
 People in positions of power  wealthy
 Wealthy  used position to develop strong patron-client relationship
o With citizens
o Gain political and economic power

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45
Q

Political life: Aediles

A

two junior magistrates
 Prerequisite for duumvirship
 Supervised markets, temples and streets
 Made public offerings

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46
Q

Political Life: Duumvir

A 
two chief magistrates
	Presided over curia and courts 
	Oversaw revenue and taxation 
	Supervised public projects 
	E.g. Marcus Nonius Balbus 
	No military power 
	Wore toga praetexta
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47
Q

Political Life: Quinquennales

A

 Duumvir
 Elected every 5 years
 Revised citizenship roles

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48
Q

Political Life: Town Council

A 
	Equivalent of Senate in Rome
	Made local laws 
	Presided in curia 
	Minimum age  25 
	Members for life unless dismissed by Quinquennales
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49
Q

Name leisure activities.

A

• Archaeological evidence of Baths
• Graffiti: visiting actors: “Actius, master of stage performers” near amphitheatre
• Prostitution: inscriptions, archaeological evidence at Pompeii
• Gladiatorial games
o Combats between gladiators and between men and animals
o Trained at palaestra
o Evidence: archaeological find of helmets, greaves and weapons in gladiatorial barracks
 inscription “Auctus of the Julian school has won 50 times”
 remains of amphitheatre
• Cock fighting
o Evidence: mosaic depicting roosters fighting each other
• Pantomimes: mime and music in theatre

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50
Q

Name the aspect of Food.

A

• Seafood: Mosaic, House of Faun Pompeii
• Carbonised dates, figs, and olives
• List of foods
o Bread, wine, sausages, leeks
• Garum: small terracotta jars
o Thick, salty fish sauce
• Thermopolia
• Varied diet
o Evidence:
 Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts
 Animals bones  sheep, cattle, pigs  meat
 Fish bones, sea urchins  seafood
 Jashemski: many houses had room for crops (figs, olives, cherries, vegetables)
 Mosaics and frescoes  fruit, fish, poultry

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51
Q

Describe dining in P/H

A

• Frescoes  people eating and drinking
• Triclinium  specific dining room for banqueting (wealthy houses)
o Outdoor Triclinium  House of the Moralist
 Three stone couches and marble topped table
• Fast food – Thermopolia  serving of ready-cooked food
o Penelope Allison
• Villa Murecine
o Inn
o Contained 5 triclinia
o Large kitchen area  large bench for food preparation

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52
Q

Describe clothing in P/H

A

• Limited archaeological evidence  mostly from artistic representations of wealthy
• Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus: men wore toga, knee-length tunic  unlikely worn all the time
o Purple stripe on toga  Equestrian class
• Women: Statues at Villa of Papyri, stola and palla
o Statue of Eumachia
 Stola, sleeveless tunic  marital status
 Palla  worn outdoors
• Toga praetexta  Magistrates
• Frescoes of women and men

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53
Q

Describe health in P/H

A

• Surgical Instruments  Penelope Allison
o People performed high-level first aid
• Archaeological investigation of Estelle Lazer
o Studied 300 skulls  people well nourished
o Decay of teeth  caused by grindstones in flour
o HFI  post-menopausal women
• Archaeological remains of baths and toilet
• Butterworth & Laurence: Tuberculosis and malaria  common diseases

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54
Q

Name three rooms inside of a bath house.

A
  • Trepidarium = Warm room
  • Caladarium = Steam room
  • Fridgedarium = Cool room
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55
Q

Baths in P/H

A
  • Archaeological evidence of baths
  • Social and leisure activity
  • Hot baths  thermae
  • Julia Felix  had own baths for “elegant and respectable people”
  • Public complexes
  • Wealthy homes didn’t have baths
  • Warm room > steam room > cold room
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56
Q

Baths in Pompeii?

A

Forum Baths, the Stabian Baths, the Central Baths and the Amphitheatre Baths
• Stabian Baths
o Largest baths in Pompeii
o Hypocaust: furnaces  heated boilers  sent hot water into pipes  baths
o Floors and rooms heated by hot air circulated by pipes and flues

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57
Q

Baths in Herculaneum

A

Forum Baths and Suburban Baths
• Forum Baths
o Skeletons found in men’s dressing room  safety from eruption
• Suburban baths
o Inscription  baths donated by Marcus Nonius Balbus
o Plunge pool in Trepidarium

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58
Q

Water Supply in P/H

A 
•	Remains of Aqueducts
o	Water entered water tower and flowed to different pipes  by gravity 
o	Pompeii  Ran to 42 Public fountains 
o	Herculaneum  3 Public Fountains 
o	Ran to some wealthy houses 
o	Pipes made from lead 
o	Drainage  better in Herculaneum because of steep slope 
•	Fountains
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59
Q

Sanitation in P/H

A

 Healthy place
 Public latrines (toilets) in forum, baths and palaestra
 One or two toilets in house
 No toilet paper  sponge or stick for cleaning

60
Q

Public Buildings ‘Basilicas’

A

o law courts
o government and legal proceedings
o raised platform when duumvir acted as judges
o Contract signings

61
Q

Public Buildings ‘Temples’

A 
o	Temple of Isis
	Greek fluted columns 
	Lararium 
	Only building completely restored after earthquake in AD62 
o	Temple of Venus
	Corinthian temple
	overlooks sea 
o	Temple of Apollo 
	Constructed 2nd century BC 
	Hellenistic and Italian (staircase) styles
62
Q

Public Buildings: Fora

A

o Herculaneum  yet to be excavated  buried underneath Resina
o Two forums in Pompeii  centre for trade
 Civic Forum
• 40m wide and 150m long
• 40 statues of powerful families
• Within or adjoining forum  Temple of Jupiter, Temple of Apollo, Basillica

63
Q

Types of Forums in P/H

A

Civic Forum
- Triangular Forum
• 95 Doric columns surrounded three sides
• Included Samnite temple = Eldest temple

64
Q

Public Buildings ‘Theatres’

A

o Pompeii (2nd century BC)  5000 people
o Herculaneum (1ST century AD)  2000 people
o Small theatre Odeon  1300 people
 Music recitals and meetings
o Sectional seating
 Lower rows  magistrates and rich
 Middle rows  middle class & average citizens
 Top rows  women
o Entertainment free but required tokens
o Fires and other special effects

65
Q

Public Buildings ‘Palaestra’

A 
o	Soldiers and gladiators exercised
o	Greek influence
o	Provided shade and open space for athletes 
o	Two in Pompeii 
o	One in Herculaneum  pool and fountain
66
Q

Public Buildings ‘Amphitheaters’

A 
o	Only Pompeii 
o	Approx. 20000 people 
o	Stalls set up outside 
o	Games  beast hunts, gladiatorial contests, athletic displays (painted notices) 
o	Awning provided shade 
o	Water sprinkled to keep audience cool
67
Q

Private Buildings ‘Villas’

Detail the Otium Villa’s

A 
	Built for leisure 
	Multi-storey buildings
	Subterranean portico 
	Expansive gardens, water displays, thermal baths, larger swimming pools 
	Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum)
•	1800 papyrus rolls  Philodemus (poet/philosopher) 
•	245 x 137 metres (MASSIVE) 
•	Peristyle  36 columns 
•	Baths
•	Grand gardens
•	87 statues  animals, gods, athletes
68
Q

Private Buildings: ‘Villas’ detail the ‘Villa Rusticae’

A 
	Villa built on land  agricultural production 
	Partially excavated 
	Villa Regina (Pompeii)
•	Courtyard surrounded by porticoes 
•	Large kitchen in centre
69
Q

Private Buildings: Houses

A

o Incorporated both residential and commercial facilities e.g. House of Stephanus  fullery
o Atrium-peristyle house  wealthy
o Natural light illuminated rooms in wealthy

70
Q

What’s an Atrium?

A

Large central room, foyer of the house.

71
Q

What’s an impluvium?

A

Small pool to catch rainwater.

72
Q

Whats a Tablinium?

A

Branched off the atrium, reception room, where master would receive clients.

73
Q

Peristyle?

A

Outside garden

74
Q

Triclinium?

A

Dinning Room

75
Q

What’s a Tabernae?

A

shop attached to house.

76
Q

What’s a Lararium?

A

household shrine

77
Q

House of Faun (Pompeii)

A
  • Named after bronze statue of dancing faun
  • Alexander the Great mosaic
  • Fresco found  flora and fauna along Nile River
  • Cover entire insulae
78
Q

House of the tragic poet (Pompeii)

A
  • Named after mosaic in Tablinium  actors performing Greek drama
  • Atrium  image of Zeus and Hera
  • Peristyle  imaginary garden scene on wall
  • Peristyle  fresco of sacrifice of Iphigenia
79
Q

House of the Vettii (Pompeii)

A
  • Named after Vettii brothers
  • Peristyle with fluted Doric columns
  • Atrium  fresco of fertility God Priapus
  • Well-preserved lararium
80
Q

Shops, Tabernae examples…

A

o Fullery of Stephanus  e.g. of shop with house
o Asselina’s Inn (Pompeii)
o Bakery of Popidius Priscus (Pompeii)

81
Q

Religion in P/H

A

o Polytheistic
o O’Connor  official religious practices more public and those who seeked religious life were attracted to cults
o Worship of Capitoline Triad  Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Temples in the Forum)
o Unity within community
o Jupiter: protector of the state
o Juno: protector of women o Minerva: patroness of craftsmen
o Apollo: God of oracles and light
o Venus: god of love  patron goddess of Pompeii

82
Q

Whats the Capitoline triad ?

A

Jupiter, Juno, Minerva

83
Q

Temple of Isis?

A

 Greek fluted columns
 Lararium
 Only building completely restored after earthquake in AD62

84
Q

Temple of Venus?

A

 Corinthian temple

 overlooks sea

85
Q

Temple of Apollo?

A

 Constructed 2nd century BC

 Hellenistic and Italian (staircase) styles

86
Q

Household gods?

A

o Protect household
o Lararium: household shrine where Lares were worshipped
 Niche dug out to place statues of household Gods
 House of the Vettii  well-preserved Lararium
o Sometimes frescoes substitutes for statues of Gods
o Statues dressed in country style  original protectors of farms
o Penates: protectors of stores and food
o Offerings: wheat, fruit, eggs
o Rituals conducted by pater familias

87
Q

Foreign Cult: Bacchus/Dionysius

A

 Greek God of wine and fertility
 Offered communication with God and promise of blessed life after death
 House of Vettii and Villa of the Mysteries  Dionysius rescuing Adriane
 Very popular – Livy  spread “like a contagious disease”
 Government did not approve

88
Q

Foreign Cult: Isis.

A

 Egyptian influence
 Zamarti: introduced through foreign prostitutes
 Worship  shrine in Julia Felix’s garden
 Appealed to women  role as mother and wife
 Annual festivals  navigation of Isis and Isra

89
Q

Talk about Tombs.

A

o Illegal to bury dead within town
o Large number of tombs along roads leading to Herculaneum, Nucerian and Nolan Gates
o No tombs uncovered at Pompeii
o Bodies normally cremated  some buried
o Ashes collected in terracotta/glass urns and buried
o Pater familias: ensured deceased received proper burial rites
o Failure to be buried properly – spend eternity as evil person
o Funeral Rites
 Conclamatio: relatives gathered and call out name of deceased
 Women prepared body for burial/cremation  wash and rub with oils
 Body placed in atrium  non-relatives to pay respect
o Funeral processions: musicians and professional mourners

90
Q

Tomb of the Istacidii Family

A

 Owners of Villa of the Mysteries
 Large funerary chamber
 Statues of prominent family members

91
Q

Tomb of Mamia

A

 Priestess of Venus
 Semi-circular tomb
 Funded by town council

92
Q

Before today’s world how did archeologists deal with P/H?

A
  • “Haphazard”: - lack organisation
  • Few records – inaccurate
  • Findings taken out of context
  • Stopped digging at AD 79
  • Maiuri: produced living museum and ‘told a good story’
  • 1950/1960’s – Pompeii neglected
  • Individual archaeologist – not working in teams
93
Q

Archeologist methods today at P/H

A 
•	Moratorium “stop” of excavation
•	Conservation
•	Reconstruction
•	Systematic
•	Advanced multidisciplinary teams/experts
- architects 
- chemists
- osteologists
- volcanologists
- conservators 
•	Focus on Pre-Roman and before 
AD79
•	Emphasis on documenting 
•	Resource management 
•	Implementation of new technologies 
e.g. iPads
•	Have to prove why they want to excavate
94
Q

Giuseppe Fiorelli contributions to Understanding of P/H?

A 
•	Uniform numbering and naming system 
- excavated buildings/houses
- divided Pompeii into 9 insulae 
•	Plaster casts of victims
- revealed impressions of humans, animals and furniture 
•	Top down excavation
- less damage to walls and evidence
•	Systematic and careful excavation
- according to plan 
- did one insulae at a time
95
Q

August Mau contributions to understanding P/H?

A
  • Classified frescos into four decorative styles

* Date range for buildings by dating the fresco

96
Q

Vittorio Spinazzola contributions to understanding P/H

A 
•	Excavated Via dell’ Abbondanza
- revealed shops, taverns 
•	Reconstructed balconies and upper stories
•	Used photography to record findings
•	Discovered Fullery of Stephanus
97
Q

Estelle Lazer contributions to understanding of P/H

A
  • Research on skeletal remains Pompeii

* Challenged assumption that majority of volcano victims were women, children, elderly and disabled

98
Q

Impact of New research: The Pompeii Forum Project…

A

Began in 1988 Lead by Professor of Roman art and archaeology at University of Virginia Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains

To recover architectural and decorative remains that were deteriorating

99
Q

The Pompeii forum project, action? impact?

A

Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains Maps used to stimulate discussions about Pompeian urbanism among scholars

100
Q

Impact of New research: Herculaneum conservation project.

A

2000 - funding
2001 - start excavation and construction Packard Humanities Institute - America

Getty Conservation Institute

Wallace Hadrill Halt serious decay, maintain on a sustainable basis

Sewerage

Help fund Italian government

101
Q

Herculaneum Conservation Project: action, impact?

A

Restored ancient sewerage - drained to sea

Consolidation of structures

Employ falconers to address pigeon issue (refer to conservation issues)
Prevent further damage to Pompeii and Herculaneum

102
Q

Impact of New Research: Insula of Menander Project.

A

Began 1978 British: led by Roger Ling Redress deficiencies in earlier records made by Amedeo Maiuri

103
Q

Insula of Menander Project, actions, impact?

A

Three-stage analysis and documentation of whole insula
Stage 1: examine architecture and interior decoration
Stage 2: study interior decoration
Stage 3: examine loose finds We now have a better understanding of the Insula of Menander as a representation of ancient Roman life.

104
Q

What are some issues of conservation and reconstruction?

A

Poor restoration, Damage from Vegetation, Environmental factors, Poor site protection/management.

105
Q

Poor restoration work.

A

o Poor restoration work
 Reconstruction work done lacks specialised knowledge
e.g. Timber room at the House of Meleager (Pompeii) poorly designed and collapsed
 Spinazzola covered frescoes and mosaics with glass which creates moist climate  deteriorates works

106
Q

Damage from Vegetation.

A

 Weeds invaded & create cracks in artefacts

107
Q

Environmental factors.

A

 Sunlight and rain cause frescoes to fade  Roofs reconstructed
 1980 Earthquake and frequent Earth tremors cause damage to ruins
 Pigeon droppings acidic and continually peck at beams & doors
 bird catchers (falconers) employed

108
Q

Poor site protection/management

A

 Pompeii & Herculaneum subject to looting  frescoes from House of the Chaste Lovers (Pompeii) elsewhere in Italy
 Bags not checked when entering and leaving  promotes theft
 Insufficient number of guards

109
Q

Other issues in conservation?

A

 Stray dogs roaming area  most removed

 People allowed to eat within houses and buildings  rubbish

110
Q

Negative impacts of tourism?

A

 flash photography  damaging mosaics and frescoes
 2.5 million tourists a year  not big enough to hold that many people
 2008: prompted superintendant Guzzo to declare ‘State of Emergency’
 Theft: Fresco in House of Chaste Lovers found elsewhere in Italy
 Touching of artefacts lead to deterioration  House of Vettii (Pompeii) closed off, House of the Gladiators (Pompeii) not open to public (now collapsed)
 Allowed to eat  food acid deteriorates artworks

111
Q

Positive impacts of tourism?

A

 Increased global awareness of ‘State of Emergency’
 Famous people e.g. Charles Dickens visited site and published findings and emphasised devastating situation
 Development of International projects e.g. Anglo American Project
 Makes money for conservation and restoration work

112
Q

Ethical Issues due to study and display of human remains.

A

o Vermillion and Tamaki Makaurau Accords (Codes of Ethics)
 Show respect and compassion whilst trying to continue scientific research
 Can gain insights into diets, life expectancy and predict future population trends
o No warning for visitors about to witness remains, which can cause sensitivities to certain cultures
o Controversial: display of bones
o Display of Herculaneum skeletons in Naples Museum more confronting than plaster casts in situ in Pompeii
o International Council of Museums: remains should be presented with skill and respect for human dignity
o Question of cultural property caused conflict between archaeologists, museums, art collectors and auction houses

113
Q

The economy: trade

A
  • Strabo: Pompeii was a trading centre for agricultural produce
  • Pompeii: Played important role in economy of Campania
  • Herculaneum: economy served local needs only
  • Shipwrecks found
  • Ancient writers (Pliny) wrote about wine and garum
114
Q

Economy: Trading, what was imported and exported?

A 
Imports: 
•	Tableware
•	Wine
•	Olive oil
•	Garum
Exports: 
•	Garum
•	Wine
115
Q

Economy: What makes up commerce?

A

Shops, Markets, Temporary Stalls, Thermopolia.

116
Q

Shops and commerce?

A

• Shops in the front rooms of Houses
 a mason’s shop
 a carpenter’s shop

117
Q

Markets and commerce?

A

 Macellum in Pompeii: meat and fish market
 fish bones found
- dates regulated: evidence for planning and organisation in Pompeii
• Temple of Apollo: Mensa Ponderaria: measuring weights

118
Q

Temporary stalls and commerce?

A

• Temporary stalls
 sold shoes, vegetables, cloth, fruit
 set up near Amphitheatre and Forum

119
Q

Thermopolia and commerce?

A

• Thermopolia
 dolia in counter stored food and drink, e.g. dried food: nuts, vegetables
- Problems with source: cannot be sure that dolia only held those types of foods
 carbonised remains of nuts in dolium in Pompeii

120
Q

Industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

A

• agriculture, wine and olive oil production: dominant
• cloth manufacture
 Fullery of Stephanus: dying of clothes through urine

121
Q

The wine industry?

A
  • excavated farms, vines
  • traces of production from vats and presses
  • storage jars found with traces of wine
  • transported wine in vast leather wine skin on a cart
122
Q

Metal industry?

A

• Marble plaque (Pompeii)
o Reveals how objects were made and weighted
o Typical workshop in Pompeii

123
Q

Occupations in Herculaneum and Pompeii?

A 
•	Beard: “More than fifty ways of making a living in Pompeii” 
•	Artisans
- artists, metal workers, potters
•	Tradesmen
•	Weaver
•	Gem cutter 
•	Architect 
•	Pastry cook 
•	Wealthy merchants
•	Bakers
•	Bath attendants 
•	HOUSE OF VETTII FRESCO shows various occupations
o	Wine making
o	Fulling 
o	Perfumery 
o	Production of jewellery and large bronze vessels
124
Q

Baker as an occupation?

A

• Much along Via dell’ Abbondanza
• More than 35 bakeries in Pompeii
• Process: milled the grain, baked the bread and sold it
o Powered by donkeys, mules and small horses, evidence: skeletons found chained to mills
• North east of Forum: 7 bakeries in 100 metres
• Bread sold in temporary stalls too

125
Q

Banker as an occupation?

A
  • Lucius Caecilius Jucundus

* In charge of transactions of money, evidence documents found

126
Q

Garum Maker as an occupation?

A
  • Aulus Umbricius Scaurus
  • Pottery containers
  • Mixed together pieces of seafood with salt and left it in a vat for a couple of months to ferment in the sun
  • Large salt pans outside city
127
Q

Influence of Greek and Egyptian in Art?

A

o Influenced by Greek, Etruscan, Italian and Egyptian works
o Greek  Mosaic battle of Alexander and Darius (House of the Faun)
o Egyptian  Fresco of Nile River flora and fauna (House of the Faun)
o Poetry and philosophy  Papyrus scrolls (Villa of the Papyri)
o Poetry found with lines from Homer

128
Q

Influence of Greek and Egyptian in Architecture?

A

o Columns:
 Doric: House of the Tragic Poet
 Ionic: Temple of Apollo
 Corinthian: Peristyle courtyards in homes & Temple of Fortuna Augusta
o Triangular Forum in shape of Greek Acropolis
o Samnite House at Herculaneum

129
Q

Influence of Greek and Egyptian in Religion?

A

o Egyptian goddess Isis worshipped
 Temple dedicated to her with frescoes asking for guidance
 Fresco of Isis at Ceremony of Water  worshipped at Herculaneum
o Greek god Dionysus worshipped
 Bacchic scene in House of Dioscuri (Pompeii)
 Frescoes found in Herculaneum

130
Q

Religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

A

o Polytheistic
o O’Connor  official religious practices more public and those who seeked religious life were attracted to cults
o Worship of Capitoline Triad  Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Temples in the Forum)
o Unity within community
o Jupiter: protector of the state
o Juno: protector of women Capitoline Triad (J, J & M)
o Minerva: patroness of craftsmen
o Apollo: God of oracles and light
o Venus: god of love  patron goddess of Pompeii

131
Q

1860 – 1875
19TH CENTURY
Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?

A 
Giuseppe Fiorelli 
 •	Uniform numbering and naming system 
- excavated buildings/houses
- divided Pompeii into 9 insulae 
•	Plaster casts of victims
- revealed impressions of humans, animals and furniture 
•	Top down excavation
- less damage to walls and evidence
•	Systematic and careful excavation
- according to plan 
- did one insulae at a time
132
Q

1873 – 1909
19TH CENTURY
Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?

A

August Mau • Classified frescos into four decorative styles

• Date range for buildings by dating the fresco

133
Q

1910 – 1923

Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?

A

Vittorio Spinazzola • Excavated Via dell’ Abbondanza
- revealed shops, taverns
• Reconstructed balconies and upper stories
• Used photography to record findings
• Discovered Fullery of Stephanus

134
Q

1924 - 1961

Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?

A

Amedeo Maiuri • Excavation of Pompeii and attempts at restoration at Herculaneum
• Recreated atmosphere of interior houses
- put utensils in place
- restored walls and ceilings
• Believed necessary to dig below Roman levels
• Creation of guidebooks
• Excavated Villa of the Mysteries

135
Q

1990’s

Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?

A

Penelope M. Allison • Dr Penelope Allison: “I am interested in revealing the utilitarian side of life rather than its glamorous side.”
• Recorded and analysed wall paintings of the House of Ancient Hunt
• Study of room contents of 30 houses in Pompeii

136
Q

Steven Ellis

Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?

A
  • Conducted on site survey of Pompeii

* Located 158 properties of food and drink outlets

137
Q

1980’s Estelle Lazer

A
  • Research on skeletal remains Pompeii

* Challenged assumption that majority of volcano victims were women, children, elderly and disabled

138
Q

1980s Jaye Pont

A

• Focused on red slip pottery
• Used scientific and analytical techniques to identify where clay from, used in vessels
- findings suggest, majority from Bay of Naples

139
Q

The Pompeii Forum Project

A

The Pompeii Forum Project Began in 1988 Lead by Professor of Roman art and archaeology at University of Virginia Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains

To recover architectural and decorative remains that were deteriorating
Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains Maps used to stimulate discussions about Pompeian urbanism among scholars

140
Q

Herculaneum Conservation Project

A

Herculaneum Conservation Project 2000 - funding
2001 - start excavation and construction Packard Humanities Institute - America

Getty Conservation Institute

Wallace Hadrill Halt serious decay, maintain on a sustainable basis

Sewerage

Help fund Italian government Restored ancient sewerage - drained to sea

Consolidation of structures

Employ falconers to address pigeon issue (refer to conservation issues)
Prevent further damage to Pompeii and Herculaneum

141
Q

Via dell Abbondanza Project

A

Via dell Abbondanza Project 2004-2007 Jennifer and Arthur Stevens
Accurately record findings

Safely excavate the Via del Abbondanza Created photo mosaics of the total 900m

Compare to originals from 1910 - 1923

2005-2006 complete the surveying and half the photos

2007 - all photo mosaics finished Create record for future archaeologists

142
Q

Anglo- American Project

A

Anglo- American Project 2000-2012 Rick Jones
Damian Robertson Record and preserve what was in the region six insula 1 Documented the history of archaeological remains

Educated public

Worked on the House of the Surgeon, workshops and bars

Identified the earliest houses
Conservation education model - increase understanding of public

143
Q

Insula of Menander Project

A

Insula of Menander Project Began 1978 British: led by Roger Ling Redress deficiencies in earlier records made by Amedeo Maiuri Three-stage analysis and documentation of whole insula
Stage 1: examine architecture and interior decoration
Stage 2: study interior decoration
Stage 3: examine loose finds We now have a better understanding of the Insula of Menander as a representation of ancient Roman life.

144
Q

The Philodemus Project

A

The Philodemus Project UCLA
University of California, Los Angeles

Reconstruct Philodemus’ works on poetry, rhetoric and music

Found in Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum Texts published with translations Allows us to appreciate Philodemus’ works

145
Q

o Italian Contributions

A

 1997: policy, all tourist income put back into site
 4 July 2008: declared Pompeii at ‘State of Emergency’, and allowed commissioner to oversee Pompeii and Herculaneum preservation and management
 Venice Charter: outlines main ways in which sites should be conserved and restored

146
Q

o International Contributions

A 
	Anglo-American Project
–	(refer to table) 
	Herculaneum Conservation Project
–	(refer to table) 
	UNESCO
–	Expert advise to Italian government on ways to improve conservation 
–	Continually makes reports on sites 
–	1997: declared World Heritage 
–	visited area in 2012
–	ensures preservation work being completed

HSC ANCIENT HISTORY (4 decks)

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